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POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 


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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   -    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO  ,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  witii  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.arcliive.org/details/poultrylaborator01lewi 


POULTRY 
LABORATORY    GUIDE 


A  MANUAL  FOR   THE  STUDY  OF  PRACTICAL 
POULTRY  KEEPING 


BY 


HARRY   R.    LEWIS,    B.S. 

PROFESSOR  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY,  BARON  DE  HIRSCH 
AGRICULTURAL    SCHOOL 


ILLUSTRATED 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1910 

All  rigJits  reserved 


Copyright,  1910, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  1910. 


Ncrbjooli  ^ress 

J.  S.  Cushing  Co.  — Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


INTRODUCTION 

The  object  in  publishing  this  laboratory  man- 
ual is  to  fill  a  long-felt  want  in  poultry  short 
courses,  where  the  classes  are  large  and  where  a 
great  amount  of  practical  work  must  of  neces- 
sity be  crowded  into  a  short  period  of  time. 

There  is  a  growing  demand  for  systematic 
laboratory  work  in  all  of  our  practical  agricul- 
tural studies,  and  especially  so  in  the  short 
courses.  The  purpose  of  this  work,  therefore, 
is  to  aid  the  beginner  in  obtaining  the  maximum 
amount  of  benefit  in  the  least  possible  time,  and 
also  to  better  enable  him  by  personal  study  to 
grasp  the  fundamental  principles  underlying  the 
work  without  the  close  personal  attention  of 
the  instructor,  which  is  impossible  in  our  poultry 
classes. 

The  manual  may  also  be  used  as  a  guide  for 
laboratory  work  in  collegiate  courses,  more  than 
one  period  being  given  to  the  more  important 
exercises  ;  which  should  be  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  instructor,  the  amount  of  time  being  de- 
voted to  each  part  depending  on  the  equipment 


VI  INTRODUCTION 

of  the  department,  length  of  the  course,  and  age 
and  previous  training  of  the  students.  If  used 
in  connection  with  a  short  course  of  less  than  nine 
weeks,  it  will  be  necessary  to  introduce  the 
exercises  dealing  with  incubation  at  an  earlier 
period  in  order  to  finish  the  work  of  brooding 
before  the  end  of  the  course. 

The  exercises  begin  with  the  very  elementary 
work  and  touch  only  the  practical  side  (the 
work  which  each  student  should  do  and  observe 
for  himself)  and  with  which  every  poultryman 
should  be  very  familiar.  It  is  not  designed  to 
take  the  place  of  a  text,  but  to  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  and  as  a  supplement  to  a  thorough 
modern  text-book,  the  idea  being  to  discuss  the 
various  problems  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
student  can  solve  them  by  deductions  from  his 
own  observation   and   experience. 

If  the  institution  is  equipped  with  a  depart- 
ment of  Zoology  and  Mechanic  Arts,  the  work 
in  entomology  and  the  repair  and  operation  of 
boilers  and  heating  plants  should  be  taken  up  in 
their  respective  departments. 


CONTENTS 

EXERCISE  PAGE 

I.     Cleaning   and  Disinfecting  Poultry  Houses 

Preparatory  for  Use  by  the  Student  .         1 

II.     A   Study   of   the  Various  Types  of  Poultry 

Houses 3 

III.  Internal    Equipment    and    Arrangement   of 

Poultry  Houses 5 

IV.  Methods    of    Yarding   and  Construction  of 

Fences 10 

V.     Collection,  Selection,  and  Keeping  Eggs  for 

Incubation 15 

Artificial  Incubation 19 

VI.     (A)    Construction  of  Incubator  Cellars  .       19 

VII.     (B)    A  Study  of  the  Incubator       .         .         .22 

VIII.     (C)    Art  of  Running  an  Incubator         .         .       26 

Natural  Incubation 29 

IX.     Selection   of   Place   of   Setting  and  Care  of 

Hen 29 

X.     Testing,  Seventh  and  Fourteenth  Days  .  34 

Embryology 39 

XL     (A)    Formation  of  the  Egg    .         .         .         .    .  39 
XII.     (B)    Development   from   the    Third   to   the 

Sixth  Day 42 

XIII.     (C)    Development  from  the  Eighth  to  the 

Nineteenth  Day  ....      45 

vii 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


Artificial  Brooding 

EXERCISE 

XIV. 
XV. 


(A) 
(B) 


Construction  of  Brooder  Houses 
A  Study  of  the  Brooder  both  Out- 
door and  Indoor 
XYI.     (C)    Art  of  Running  a  Brooder     . 


Natural  Brooding 


and   Care   of  Hen 


XVn.  Location,  Housing, 

and  Chicks  .... 

XVIII.  Crate  Fattening     .... 

XIX.  Machine  Fattening,  or  Cramming 

XX.  Caponizing 

XXI.  Preservation  of  Eggs 

XXII.  New  England  Method  of  Killing  anc 

Picking 

XXIII.  New  Jersey  Method  of  Killing  and  Pick 

ing 

XXIV.  Shaping  and  Dressing    ... 
XXV.  Packing  and  Shipping  Eggs  . 

XXVI.  Packing  and  Shipping  Poultry 

XXVII.  Poultry  Book-keeping    .         .         .         , 

XXVIII.  Convenient  Poultry  Records. 

XXIX.  Figuring  Poultry  Profits 

XXX.  Advertising 

XXXI.  Writing  to  Prospective  Customers 

XXXII.  Scoring  and  Grading  Eggs    . 

XXXIII.  Scoring  Poultry  Plants 

XXXIV.  Judging  Poultry  for  Fancy  Points 
XXXV.  Judging  Poultry  for  Utility  Points 

XXXVI.  Systems  of    Heating  Brooder    Houses 

and  Art  of  Firing     . 

XXXVII.  Repairing  Damaged  Heating  Systems 

XXXVIII.  Miscellaneous  Appliances 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIOXS 

Location  of  Incubator  and  Brooder  Houses  .        Frontispiece 

FIG.  FACIN 

A.  Students  constructing  Poultry  House 

1.  Students  cleaning  and  disinfecting  Poultry  House 

2.  Single-pen  House  ysiih.  Gable  or  Even-span  Roof 

3.  Double-pen  Scratching  Room  House 

4.  Open-front  House 

5.  Group  of  Drinking  Fountains 

6.  Group  of  Feed  Hoppers  and  Troughs 

7.  Showing  the  Arrangement  of  Fences 

8.  Corner  Fence  Bracing      .... 

9.  Two  Satisfactory  Types  of  Poultry  Gates 

10.  Various  Sizes  and  Shapes  of  Eggs  . 

11.  External  View  of  a  Modern  Incubator  Cellar 

12.  Incubator  of  the  Nursery  Drawer  Type  with  Part 

taken  Out 

13.  Interior  View  of  a  Modern  Incubator  Cellar  . 

14.  A  Convenient  Method  of  setting  the  Hen 

15.  Showing  Three  Methods  of  furnishing  Light  for 

Testing 

16.  Reproductive  Organs  of  Female 

17.  Embryo  Chick  on  Third  Day  .... 

18.  Individual  Brooder  House        .... 

19.  Three  Brooders  which  are  in  very  Common  L^se 

20.  Instruments  for  performing  the  Operation  of  Ca 

ponizing 

21.  Student  making  Stick 

22.  Various  Methods  of  packing  Eggs  for  Shipment 

ix 


PAGE 
1 

2 
4 

6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
10 
18 
20 
22 

24 

26 
29 

34 

40 
44 
49 
54 

67 
74 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

EXERCISE  I 

Cleaning  and  Disinfecting  Poultry  Houses 
Preparatory  for  Use  by  the  Student 

Place  all  movable  fixtures  out  of  doors  in 
the  sunshine,  cleanse,  and  thoroughly  spray  with 
the  following  disinfecting  solution.  Prepare 
as  follows  :  — 

Y2  gallon  of  crude  carbolic  acid. 
Yi  gallon  of  crude  sulphuric  acid. 

Add  the  sulphuric   acid  very  slowly  to  the 

carboUc  acid,  stirring  all  the  time.     The  vessel 

containing  the  carboHc  acid  should  be  placed  in  a 

large  receptacle  containing  water,  thus  keeping 

the  mixture  cool,  as  a  large  amount  of  heat  will 

be    generated.     One    part    of    the    mixture    to 

twenty  parts  of  water  makes  a  strong,  rehable, 

inexpensive  disinfectant  for  use  in  and  around 

the  poultry  house.     The  undiluted  acid  should 

not  be  allowed  to  touch  the  skin  or  clothing,  as 

it  is  very  caustic  in  its  action. 
B  1 


2        POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

Sweep  walls  and  ceiling  thoroughly,  removing 
all  dirt  and  cobwebs.  Remove  all  litter  from 
the  house  and  burn  or  mix  with  compost.  If  the 
floor  is  of  dirt,  remove  a  few  inches  of  the  top 
soil  and  in  its  place  put  fresh  clean  sand  or  gravel. 

Next  close  the  house,  making  it  as  air-tight  as 
possible,  and  thoroughly  fumigate  for  several 
hours  by  burning  flowers  of  sulphiu*.  The 
powdered  sulphur  should  be  placed  in  a  metallic 
basin  on  top  of  an  inverted  pail  or  pan.  Alcohol 
may  be  used  to  aid  ignition.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  all  danger  from  fire.  One 
pound  of  sulphur  will  thoroughly  cleanse  a 
house  which  contains  120  square  feet  of  floor 
space.  Allow  the  sulphur  to  burn  continuously 
for  a  number  of  hours,  after  which  air  the  house 
for  an  hour  by  opening  all  doors  and  windows. 
Next  spray  the  house  with  the  disinfecting  solu- 
tion, being  careful  to  touch  all  inside  parts. 

Replace  all  movable  fixtures  and  give  the 
inside  of  the  house  a  good  coat  of  whitewash, 
after  which  wash  the  windows  perfectly  clean 
with  sand  soap  and  hot  water,  outside  and  in, 
to  admit  all  the  sunlight  possible.  Fresh  clean 
nesting  material  and  clean  Utter  to  the  depth 
of  four  or  five  inches  must  next  be  placed  in  the 
house,  and  everything  arranged  in  neat  and 
orderly  manner  for  future  use. 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 


EXERCISE  II 

A  Study  of  the  Various.  Types  of  Poultry 
Houses 

Examine  carefully  the  various  types  of  houses 
found  on  the  college  plant.  Note  the  kind  of 
material  used  for  foundation.  Does  it  answer 
its  purpose  in  every  particular?  The  following 
materials  are  commonly  used  for  the  foundations 
of  poultry  houses :  wood,  brick,  stone,  and 
cement,  either  as  posts  or  as  a  soUd  wall.  Which 
do  you  consider  best,  and  why  ? 

Note  the  size  and  arrangement  of  sills,  posts, 
studding,  plates,  and  rafters,  as  well  as  the  kind 
and  grade  of  lumber  used.  Are  the  outside 
walls  single  or  double  ?  If  double,  what  advan- 
tage is  obtained  ?  If  double  walls,  note  the  differ- 
ence in  construction  between  the  outer  and  inner 
wall. 

Next  examine  the  construction  of  the  roof  and 
note  shape.  Compare  with  other  types  of  roofs 
as  regards  pitch,  amount  of  lumber  used,  labor 
required,  and  amount  of  roofing  material  re- 
quired to  cover  same.  The  following  types  are 
commonly  used  in  the  construction  of  poultry 
houses :  shed  roof,  gable  roof,  or  even  span, 
two-thirds   span,    three-quarters   span,    monitor 


4        POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

and  half  monitor,  and  A-shaped  roof.  Com- 
pare each  of  these  types  with  regard  to  the  pre- 
vious mentioned  differences  and  determine  which 
you  think  is  the  most  economical,  and  why. 

Note  the  lind  of  material  used  to  cover  the 
roof  and  examine  its  condition.  With  a  tape 
find  the  area  of  the  roof  and  determine  which 
would  be  cheaper,  shingles  or  paper,  taking 
into  consideration  both  the  initial  cost  and  the 
length  of  time  which  each  will  last  if  properly 
taken  care  of;  using  in  each  case  the  current 
price  of  shingles  and  paper. 

Upon  examining  the  house  from  the  front, 
note  the  construction  of  the  front  wall.  If  a 
large  portion  of  it  is  open,  covered  only  with 
wire  and  canvas  curtains,  there  being  no  separate 
laying  and  roosting  room,  the  house  is  of  the 
open-front  type.  If,  however,  the  house  is  built 
with  four  solid  walls,  lighted  by  windows  and  to 
one  side  is  attached  an  open  shed  the  front  of 
which  is  covered  with  wire,  it  is  of  the  scratching 
shed  tj^e. 

Enumerate  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
having  the  front  of  a  house  open  or  having  an 
open  shed  attached. 

Go  through  each  poultry  house,  discussing  the 
various  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each 
type,  taking  notes  on  the  construction,  type  of 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE        5 

roof,  and  design  of  front  wall.  Any  type  of  house 
not  exemplified  in  the  poultry  plant  should  be 
briefly  described  during  the  trip  of  inspection 
and  its  points  of  resemblance  to  the  exist- 
ing types  thoroughly  explained.  Each  student 
should  know  what  is  meant  by  and  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  following  kinds  of  houses  :  open 
front  and  scratching  shed.  These  may  be  single 
pen,  double  pen,  or  arranged  in  succession  to 
form  the  long  house. 

The  work  in  the  construction  and  types  of  poultry 
houses  should  include  not  only  a  careful  study  of  houses 
already  built,  as  outlined  above,  but  where  possible  each 
student  should  be  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  construction 
of  some  new  poultry  building.  Where  this  is  possible  and 
if  time  will  permit,  the  exercise  may  be  divided  between 
four  or  more  laboratory  periods. 


EXERCISE  III 

Internal  Equipment  and  Arrangement  of 
Poultry  Houses 

In  making  a  study  of  the  internal  fixtures  of 
the  poultry  house  visit  all  the  houses  in  turn, 
comparing  the  good  and  poor  points  of  each. 

Perches.  —  Examine  carefully  and  note  the 
following  points :  kind  and  size  of  lumber  used, 


6  POULTKY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

arrangement  and  method  of  construction.  Are 
they  all  on  the  same  level,  or  is  one  above  the 
other  in  the  form  of  steps  ?  Which  arrangement 
is  best,  and  why  ? 

Measure  the  distance  from  the  ground  to  the 
roost.  They  should  always  be  near  enough  to 
the  ground  so  that  the  birds  can  fly  to  them 
easily.  (From  one  to  three  feet,  depending  on 
the  breed.)  If  dropping-boards  are  used,  the 
roosts  should  be  raised  at  least  six  inches  above 
them  to  admit  of  easy  cleaning.  Measure  the 
total  length  of  roost  and  determine  the  number 
of  fowls  it  will  accommodate,  allowing  the  follow- 
ing space  for  the  various  breeds  :  the  small  egg 
breeds  require  from  six  to  seven  inches  of  roost 
per  bird;  the  medium-sized  fowls,  such  as  Ply- 
mouth Rocks,  from  seven  to  nine  inches;  and  the 
heavy  Brahmas  and  Cochins,  from  eight  to  ten 
inches. 

The  perches  should  be  constructed  with  the 
idea  of  convenience  for  the  fowls  and  so  arranged 
that  the  droppings  will  be  caught  without  drop- 
ping to  the  floor  or  soiling  the  litter,  and  so  that 
they  will  be  left  in  an  easy  position  for  cleaning 
and  removing. 

Are  the  perches  movable;  if  so,  what  is  the 
advantage  ? 

Dropping-board.  —  Note  the  kind  of  lumber 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE        7 

used  in  construction.  They  should  have  a 
perfectly  smooth  upper  surface.  Why  ?  Meas- 
ure the  width  of  the  dropping-board  and  deter- 
mine the  width  per  roost.  For  single  roosts  it 
should  be  eighteen  to  twenty-two  inches  wide, 
and  for  double  roosts  about  three  feet. 

Is  the  dropping-board  movable  or  built  per- 
manently into  the  building?  What  is  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  it  movable  ? 

Nests.  —  In  deciding  on  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  different  kinds  of  nests  there 
are  at  least  three  things  to  be  considered: 

1.  They  should  be  situated  so  that  they  are 
more  or  less  darkened. 

2.  They  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  eggs 
can  be  easily  collected,  and  so  constructed  that 
they  can  be  easily  and  thoroughly  cleaned. 

3.  They  should  be  raised  above  the  floor,  thus 
making  all  the  room  available  for  the  birds. 

Note  the  size  and  kind  of  lumber  used,  shape 
and  size  of  nests,  also  method  by  which  they  are 
attached  to  the  wall  or  dropping-board. 

Enumerate  the  different  kinds  of  nesting 
material  used.  Which  do  you  consider  best, 
and  why  ? 

Trap  nests.  —  Make  a  study  of  the  different 
trap  nests  available,  and  after  following  out  the 
method  of  tripping  and  locking,  decide  which 


8  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

one  is  the  simplest,  which  one  trips  the  easiest, 
the  quickest,  and  makes  the  surest  catch;  also 
which  one  is  the  easiest  to  register  the  layers,  to 
collect  the  eggs,  and  reset. 

Drinking  fountains.  —  Note  the  different 
shapes  of  fountains,  how  the  water  is  held  in 
them,  and  how  it  is  kept  clean  if  the  vessel  is  open. 
Note  the  different  materials  of  which  they  are 
made,  also  their  construction  with  reference  to 
ease  and  thoroughness  of  cleaning  and  quick- 
ness of  filling.  Are  they  placed  on  the  ground, 
on  a  raised  platform,  or  are  they  suspended  or 
hung  from  the  side  of  the  wall  ?  Which  is  the 
best  ?  What  provisions  are  made,  if  any,  for 
keeping  the  water  cool  in  summer? 

Feed  hoppers  and  troughs.  —  Note  size,  shape, 
and  method  of  construction,  kind  of  material 
used,  and  how  attached  to  the  wall.  Examine 
carefully  and  study  methods  used  to  keep  the 
birds  from  wasting  the  dry  food. 

If  wooden  or  metal  troughs  are  present  for 
feeding  wet  mash,  note  size  and  shape,  also  what 
method  is  used  to  keep  the  birds  out  of  the 
trough  and  of  keeping  the  food  clean. 

All  food  hoppers  should  be  so  arranged  that 
they  can  be  easily  taken  out  of  doors,  emptied, 
cleaned,  and  should  be  so  constructed  that  the 
birds  will  not  waste  or  soil  their  food  while  eating. 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE        9 

Notice  the  presence  of  some  form  of  self -feed- 
ing hopper,  usually  metal,  for  the  feeding  of  grit 
and  shell. 

A  cage  with  one  or  more  partitions  fastened  to 
the  wall  in  a  secluded  corner  away  from  drafts 
can  be  used  for  confining  surplus  males  when 
the  alternating  system  is  used,  and  makes  a 
handy  place  for  breaking  up  broody  hens. 

In  very  cold  cHmates  or  in  houses  with  open 
fronts  a  frame  or  curtain  of  burlap  or  cloth  is 
often  provided  for  use  in  front  of  the  roosting 
place  if  protection  from  freezing  is  necessary. 
Notice  the  construction  of  the  curtain,  also  the 
way  it  is  raised  and  lowered.  Does  it  roll  as  a 
curtain  or  is  it  made  in  the  form  of  a  frame  and 
hinged  ?     Which  do  you  consider  best,  and  why  ? 

In  open-front  houses  note  the  construction  of 
the  curtain  front,  whether  hinged  or  rolled, 
presence  of  window  sash  to  admit  of  Hght  on 
stormy  days,  thickness  of  curtain,  and  method  of 
opening  and  closing. 


10  POULTRY    LABORATORY    GUIDE 


EXERCISE  IV 

Methods  of  Yarding  and  Construction  of 

Fences 

If  the  birds  are  to  be  given  free  range,  there  are 
no  yards  to  be  planned  or  fences  to  be  built;  but 
if  they  are  to  be  kept  in  confinement,  the  plan- 
ning of  the  runs  and  the  cost  of  fencing  become 
a  big  item  in  the  cost  of  construction  and  repair. 

If  the  fowls  are  confined,  notice  whether  each 
pen  has  a  single  yard  or  two  yards  for  alternating. 
With  double  yards  what  are  the  advantages? 
Are  the  yards  in  permanent  sod,  or  is  a  system 
of  rotation  cropping  carried  on  ? 

Measure  the  yard  and  determine  the  number 
of  square  feet  per  bird.  How  do  the  figures 
correspond  with  the  following :  If  the  yard  is  in 
permanent  sod,  a  safe  estimate  is  one  hundred 
square  feet  per  bird.  If  a  system  of  double 
yarding  is  used  or  the  green  food  is  supplied 
from  outside  sources,  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
square  feet  per  bird  is  sufficient,  simply  for 
exercise  purposes. 

Note  the  presence  or  absence  of  shade  in  the 
yards  and  the  character  and  kind  of  shrubs  used 
for  the  same. 

If  a  system  of  crop  rotation  is  carried  on  with 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE 


11 


alternating  yards,  a  list  of  the  crops  planted  should 
be  kept,  showing  the  time  planted,  date  of  ger- 
mination, rapidity  of  growth,  age  and  height  at 
which  the  birds  were  pastured  on  it,  and  the 
length  of  time  that  it  supplied  them  with  green 
food;  so  to  determine  by  actual  practice  the 
best  crop  suited  for  poultry  pasture. 

System  of  Crop  Rotation  Where  Double  Yards  are 
Used 


Pen  No.  I 


Date 


March  25  to  April  30 
April  30  to  May  25 
May  25  to  June  15 

June  15  to  July  10 

July  10  to  Aug.  1 
Aug.  1  to  Aug.  20 

Aug.  20  to  Sept.  20 

Sept.  20  to  Dec.  1 


Yard  A 


Peas  and  oats 

Feeding 

Dwarf         Essex 

Rape 
Feeding 

Buckwheat 
Feeding 

Rye,  vetch   and 

cr.  clover 
Feeding 


YardB 


Feeding 

Peas  and  barley 

Feeding 

Oats,  buckwheat, 
kafir  corn 

Feeding 

Cowpeas  and  mil- 
let 

Feeding 

Rye  and  vetch 


The  dates  in  the  above  will  vary  slightly  with 
location,  but  the  crops  mentioned  will  grow  well 
in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.     The  above  is 


12  POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE 

especially  adapted  to  the  latitude  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  Jersey. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  while  the  birds  are 
feeding  in  one  yard  there  is  a  crop  growing  in  the 
other,  and  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  grow  four  crops 
a  year  in  each  yard. 

The  rye  and  vetch  that  are  seeded  in  yard  B 
about  September  20  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
until  planting  time  in  the  spring,  when  they  will 
furnish  an  abundance  of  green  feed  until  the 
spring-planted  crops  are  ready. 

The  birds  should  not  be  allowed  to  feed  on 
any  of  the  above  crops  until  they  are  at  least  four 
to  six  inches  tall;  if  allowed  on  the  feed  before 
this  age,  it  will  last  but  a  few  days. 

Fencing.  —  Examine  the  material  used  for 
posts,  —  wood,  concrete,  or  iron.  If  wood,  what 
kind  ?  Note  the  size  of  posts,  both  corner  and 
intermediate,  also  the  method  of  bracing  the 
corner  posts  by  means  of  poles  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom  of  the  next  posts  in  line,  and 
the  running  of  a  tension  wire  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  corner  post  to  the  top  of  the  next 
post. 

With  a  spade  dig  around  the  bottom  of  a  few 
of  the  posts  and  see  to  what  an  extent  decay  has 
taken  place  and  estimate  the  future  life  and  use- 
fulness of   the  posts  in  that  way.     If  different 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE  13 

kinds  of  posts  are  used,  determine  which  is  the 
best  as  to  rot-resisting  quahties. 

The  following  materials  are  used  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  for  poultry  fences :  — ■ 

1.  Pickets  or  laths  nailed  to  a  scantling  for  a 
frame. 

2.  Poultry  netting,  one,  two,  and  three  inch 
mesh  —  any  width. 

3.  Woven  wire  fences  made  with  small 
meshes  at  the  bottom  and  larger  ones  at  the 
top. 

Measure  the  height  of  the  fence,  and  if  made 
from  poultry  netting,  is  the  whole  height  made 
by  stretching  one  wide  strip  or  two  narrower 
strips  ?  What  are  the  advantages  of  making  it  of 
two  narrow  strips?  Note  the  method  used  to 
fasten  the  two  strips  of  wire  together,  either 
by  wdring  them  with  a  short  piece  of  pliable  wire 
or  by  twisting  the  selvages.  Examine  the 
method  of  fastening  the  wire  to  the  posts  by  means 
of  galvanized  wire  staples.  How  far  are  they 
placed  apart?  Also  notice  the  method  used  to 
fasten  the  wire  to  the  ground.  The  best  way  is 
by  means  of  a  baseboard  six  to  twelve  inches 
wide  nailed  to  the  bottom  of  the  posts,  and  the 
bottom  of  the  wire  nailed  to  the  bottom  of  the 
board.  In  order  to  keep  fowls  which  will  fly 
over  a  six-foot  fence  separate  for  breeding  pur- 


14  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

poses,  it  will  be  necessary  to  keep  them  confined 
in  a  covered  run. 

Notice  the  location  of  gates,  whether  they  are 
sufficient  in  number  and  so  located  as  to  be  con- 
venient and  give  easy  entrance  or  exit.  Deter- 
mine the  size  and  kind  of  lumber  used,  method 
of  bracing,  number  and  size  of  hinges  used,  also 
method  of  fastening  them  shut. 

Examine  the  wire  carefully  and  determine 
its  rust-resisting  qualities,  also  the  per  cent 
which  should  be  allowed  for  depreciation  and 
repairs  on  same. 

If  there  are  any  holes  in  the  fence  which  need 
repairing,  take  a  piece  of  wire  the  same  size  mesh 
as  the  fence  to  be  repaired,  cut  it  a  little  larger 
than  the  hole,  and  carefully  twist  the  loose  ends 
of  the  patch  around  the  strands  of  the  old  fence ; 
the  loose  ends  of  the  old  fence  should  then  be 
twisted  around  the  strands  of  the  patch.  Take 
great  care  to  leave  no  loose  ends,  as  the  birds 
are  apt  to  injure  themselves  on  them. 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE  15 

EXERCISE  V 

Collection,    Selection,   and  Keeping  Eggs 
FOR  Incubation 

Eggs  for  incubation  should  be  regularly  col- 
lected, carefully  selected,  and  properly  kept 
previous  to  being  placed  in  the  incubator.  In 
order  to  impress  upon  the  beginner  the  impor- 
tance of  the  above  facts,  each  student  should  be 
allowed  to  collect  and  select  the  eggs  from  his 
own  coop  or  coops,  keeping  always  in  mind  the 
following  facts  or  rules  :  — 

Eggs  for  incubation  should  be  selected  only 
from  birds  which  are  properly  mated,  housed, 
fed,  and  which  are  strong,  vigorous,  and  healthy. 
They  should  rarely  be  saved  from  pullets,  but 
preferably  from  yearling  hens.  The  eggs  should 
be  collected  daily,  the  number  of  the  pen  from 
which  they  are  taken  being  written  with  pencil 
on  one  end.  If  they  are  from  trap-nested  stock, 
the  number  of  the  hen  should  also  appear  on  the 
egg.  In  handling  and  carrying  the  eggs,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  crack  or  severely  shake 
them,  the  former  ruining  the  eggs  for  incubation 
purposes,  and  the  latter  causing  a  partial  break- 
ing or  rupturing  of  the  contents. 

The  eggs  should  next  be  taken  to  the  storing- 


16 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 


room  and  the  entire  lot  gone  over,  and  only  the 
ideal  ones  saved,  the  others  being  separated  and 
sold  as  market  eggs.  The  eggs  selected  should 
be  stamped  with  the  date  on  which  they  were 
laid,  so  that  when  it  comes  time  to  place  them 
in  the  incubator  the  older  ones  can  be  used  first, 
and  also  that  eggs  of  nearly  the  same  age  can  be 
put  in  the  incubator  together. 

Under  the  most  favorable  circumstance  the 
eggs  will  vary  to  the  extent  that  there  is  room 
for  much  selection.     Select  eggs  of  a  medium 


Table 


Breed 

Age 

Large    Cir- 
cumference 

Small    Cir- 
cumference 

Weight 
PER  Doz. 

T      u                   I  Hens 
Leghorns             |  p^j;^^^ 

6.3    in. 

5.2    in. 

lib. 

10.2  oz, 

6.3    in. 

5.2    in. 

lib. 

10.3  oz. 

Plymouth 

Hens 

6.31  in. 

5.4    in. 

lib. 

11.2  oz. 

Rocks 

L  Pullets 

6.22  in. 

5.37  in. 

lib. 

8.8  oz. 

Wyandottes 

■  Hens 

6.5    in. 

5.33  in. 

lib. 

9.6  oz. 

[  Pullets 

6.34  in. 

5.3    in. 

lib. 

8.4  oz. 

Rhode  Island    f  Hens 

6.2    in. 

5.31  in. 

lib. 

8.0  oz. 

Reds               1  Pullets 

6.0    in. 

5.19  in. 

lib. 

6.4  oz. 

^    ^                    f  Hens 
Brahmas             |  p^^^^^^ 

6.18  in. 

5.2    in. 

lib. 

8.0  oz. 

^     ,  .                   f  Hens 
Cochins              jp^jj^^^ 

6.12  in. 

5.37  in. 

lib. 

6.4  oz 

r  Hens 
Langshans         |  p^jj^^^ 

6.0    in. 

5.12  in. 

lib. 

9.6  oz. 

Average  of  < 

^1 

I  breeds 

6.19  in. 

5.27  in. 

lib. 

8.05  oz. 

POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       17 

size  and  average  as  regards  color  and  shape. 
The  selection  should  be  influenced  by  the  aver- 
age product  of  the  hen  or  breed. 

The  preceding  table  shows  average  sizes  and 
dimensions  and  weights  of  eggs  from  our  com- 
mon breeds. 

Measure  and  compare  a  number  of  eggs  with 
the  above  table ;  after  a  httle  practice  it  will  be 
very  easy  to  readily  judge  by  sight  and  touch 
the  size,  shape,  and  weight  of  each  egg  which  is 
handled.  An  unusually  large  egg  may  be  a 
freak  of  nature  and  cannot  be  expected  to  hatch. 
An  unusually  small  egg  may  be  defective  and 
should  not  be  used  for  incubation.  An  even, 
uniform  lot,  assorted  as  to  size,  color,  and  shape, 
will  be  more  apt  to  give  the  best  results.  An  egg 
of  unusual  length  or  rotundity  should  not  be 
saved,  the  probabihty  being  that  a  chick,  if  it 
developed  at  all,  would  be  so  malformed  as  to  be 
unable  to  leave  the  shell. 

The  following  figure  illustrates  normal  and 
abnormal  eggs. 

If  the  egg  is  at  all  soiled,  it  should  be  washed 
clean,  wiped  dry,  and  placed  with  the  others  in 
strong  trays  or  racks.  Care  must  be  taken  in 
washing  not  to  jar  the  contents,  as  it  may  injure 
the  egg  for  hatching.  As  fast  as  they  are  placed 
in  the  racks  they  should  be  covered  with  a  few 


18       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

layers  of  clean  cotton  cloth  to  prevent  them  from 
chilling.  If  the  temperature  of  the  room  is  sixty 
degrees  or  above,  this  is  not  necessary.  The 
trays  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  position  of 
the  eggs  can  be  easily  changed  daily.  If  eggs 
are  not  in  trays,  but  loose,  each  egg  should  be 
partially  turned  each  day  to  prevent  the  germ 
from  sticking  to  the  shell.  Incubation  eggs  in 
storage  should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  from 
fifty  to  sixty  degrees ;  they  will  stand  from  forty 
to  eighty  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  a  short  time. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  them  from 
drying  out,  so  they  should  not  be  exposed  to 
currents  of  air,  steam,  or  vapor. 

Freshness  is  a  prime  necessity,  and  an  egg  over 
twenty-one  days  old  should  never  be  set;  while  it 
may  hatch,  yet  the  chick  will  be  weak  and  hard 
to  raise.  Fresh  eggs  hatch  early,  and  the  chicks 
are  usually  stronger  than  from  older  eggs. 
About  twelve  hours  previous  to  placing  eggs  in 
the  incubator  it  is  well  to  stand  them  on  the  small 
end,  allowing  the  yolk  to  balance  itself  and  the 
air  cell  to  assume  its  proper  place.  It  is  a  poor 
practice  to  set  eggs  of  more  than  one  breed  in 
an  incubator  at  the  same  time,  as  different  eggs 
vary  in  thickness  and  strength  of  shell  and  in 
the  amount  of  heat  and  moisture  required. 


poultry  laboratory  guide  19 

Summary 

Eggs  for  incubation  must  be  carefully  and 
promptly  gathered  and  cared  for.  The  egg  has 
as  much  to  do  with  the  results  of  incubation  as 
has  the  incubator,  and  therefore  the  machine 
should  not  be  blamed  for  not  hatching  a  defec- 
tive egg. 

EXERCISE  VI 

Location  and   Construction   of  Incubator 
Cellars 

The  successful  running  of  an  incubator  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  place  in  which  it  is  located 
and  upon  the  ease  and  quickness  with  which  we 
can  adjust  and  keep  the  desired  conditions  pres- 
ent ;  therefore  careful  consideration  should  be 
given  to  the  subject  of  incubator  cellar,  location, 
and  construction. 

Inspect  the  incubator  equipment  and  discuss 
the  above  questions  with  the  following  facts  in 
view :  — 

The  location  of  the  incubator  house  with  ref- 
erence to  the  brooder  house.  Is  it  connected  to 
the  brooder,  adjacent,  or  at  some  little  distance  ? 
Which  is  best,  and  why  ?  If  connected,  how  would 
that  fact  affect  the  labor  question,  the  ease  of 


20       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

transferring  chicks,  and  the  danger  from  fire  ?  Is 
it  located  on  a  side  hill  or  on  level  ground  ? 
Would  the  former  location  have  any  advantage 
over  the  latter?  Which  way  does  the  cellar 
face,  especially  with  reference  to  the  prevailing 
wind  direction  ?  ^ 

Are  the  incubators  located  below  the  level  of 
the  ground  or  above  ?  What  advantage  is  there 
in  having  them  below  the  ground  level?  Are 
they  located  in  a  room  or  rooms  which  are  a  part 
of  some  other  building,  or  are  they  located  in  a 
building  constructed  primarily  for  that  purpose  ? 
What  are  the  advantages  of  the  latter  method 
over  the  former  ? 

Note  method  of  ventilation;  usually  one 
of  two  systems  :  — 

King  system. 

Double  sash,  with  or  without  curtains. 

Note  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun  shining  directly  on  the  incubators. 
If  the  sunlight  is  present,  what  method  is  used  to 
darken  the  cellar?  What  is  the  objection  to 
having  the  sun  shining  directly  on  the  machine  ? 

If  the  building  is  below  ground,  note  character 
of  the  foundation,  whether  stone,  brick,  or  cem- 
ent,  also    depth    below    ground.     Are    the   in- 
cubators entirely  below  the  ground  level? 
1  See  frontispiece. 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  21 

WHiat  kind  of  material  is  used  for  the  floor? 
Cement  is  best.     Why? 

Note  carefully  the  method  of  construction  as 
regards  the  shape  of  the  building,  type  of  roof, 
lumber  used,  and  whether  double  or  single  walls. 
Is  there  any  provision  made  for  regulating  the 
temperature  of  the  cellar?  The  most  desirable 
temperature  is  from  fifty  to  seventy  degrees,  but 
incubation  may  be  successfully  carried  on  in  a 
temperature  of  thirty-five  degrees,  the  disadvan- 
tage being  more  in  rapid  variation  than  in  a  too 
high  or  too  low  general  temperature. 

Connected  with  the  incubator  cellar  there 
should  be  a  small  room  which  is  easily  darkened 
for  the  testing  of  eggs  during  incubation.  The 
presence  of  shelves  or  tables  conveniently  located 
should  be  noted  —  one  upon  which  all  surplus 
lamps  are  kept  and  where  all  trimming  and  filling 
are  done;  another  one  should  be  for  the  turning 
and  cooling  of  eggs.  A  closet  or  shelves  for  the 
keeping  of  thermometers,  hygrometers,  incubator 
parts,  records,  etc.,  is  very  essential.  The  pres- 
ence of  a  faucet  from  which  water  can  be  taken 
to  increase  the  humidity  of  the  room  is  very 
desirable. 

Estimate  carefully  the  probable  cost  of  such  a 
building  or  room,  also  figure  the  capacity  of  the 
cellar  in  dozens  of  eggs  and  determine  the  cost 


22  POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE 

per  dozen.  This  will  be  much  greater  if  the  in- 
cubator room  is  an  individual  building  by  itself 
than  if  it  is  located  in  the  cellar  or  room  of 
another  building. 

An  economical  and  efficient  building  can  be 
constructed  for  from  ninety  cents  to  one  dollar 
per  dozen  eggs,  not  including  labor. 

Figure  the  cubic  feet  of  air  space  and  determine 
the  volume  per  dozen  eggs.  The  amount  of  air 
space  required  depends  on  the  system  of  ventila- 
tion. A  good  safe  figure  is  about  ten  to  twelve 
cubic  feet  for  each  dozen  eggs. 

EXERCISE   VII 

A  Study  of  the  Incubator 

Carefully  examine  all  parts  of  each  incu- 
bator, beginning  with  the  general  appearance  of 
the  entire  machine.  It  should  be  built  of  well- 
seasoned  lumber,  be  well  put  together,  and  should 
also  be  substantial  looking.  It  should  have  a 
good  smooth  finish  both  for  looks  and  durability. 

See  that  the  machine  is  perfectly  level.  Why  ? 
Note  the  size  of  the  legs  and  the  method  of  at- 
taching them  to  the  incubator.  Are  they  easily 
removed  for  shipment  or  not?  By  placing  the 
hand  on  the  front  edge  of  the  incubator  see  if  it 
is  squarely  and  firmly  resting  on  all  four  legs.    If 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  23 

not,  place  a  thin  piece  of  wood  under  the  free 
legs  to  steady  it.  Open  the  door  and  take  out  all 
internal  fixtures,  including  the  following :  dia- 
phragm, egg  trays,  thermometer,  and  if  the  in- 
cubator is  equipped  wdth  nursery  drawers  remove 
same  with  covers.  Clean  these  parts  thoroughly 
and  wash  all  woodwork,  including  inside  walls, 
egg  trays,  etc.,  with  a  sponge  moistened  with 
a  ten  per  cent  solution  of  creolin.  Allow  parts 
to  thoroughly  dry  before  replacing  them  in  the 
machine. 

Determine  whether  the  machine  is  of  the  hot 
air  or  hot  water  type.  In  the  hot  water  machine 
note  the  presence  of  tubes  or  tanks  in  the  top  of 
the  incubator  through  which  the  water  circulates. 
If  hot  air,  a  round  metal  tube  will  be  seen  run- 
ning from  the  top  of  the  lamp  chamber  about 
three  quarters  of  the  way  across  the  top  of  the 
incubator,  through  which  the  hot  air  travels. 

Remove  lamp,  and  notice  means  of  support. 
Practise  putting  in  and  taking  out  the  lamp, 
being  careful  each  time  to  have  the  burner  fit 
the  base  of  the  chimney  perfectly.  Examine  the 
lamp  box  and  determine  the  course  taken  by  the 
pure  warm  air  on  its  way  to  the  egg  chamber, 
also  that  of  the  foul  air  direct  from  the  flame. 
What  is  the  object  of  the  asbestos  packing  about 
the  lamp  box  ? 


24       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

Study  carefully  the  self-regulating  qualities 
of  the  machine.  They  will  consist  of  two  es- 
sential factors :  — 

First,  a  sensitive  thermostat. 

Second,  a  simple  but  accurate  method  of 
transferring  the  energy  of  the  thermostat  to  the 
lamp. 

The  self-regulating  mechanism  should  admit 
of  easy  and  simple  adjustment  and  should  be  so 
constructed  as  not  to  lose  its  efficiency  with  age. 
The  successful  operation  of  most  thermostats  is 
based  on  the  varying  coefficient  of  expansion  of 
different  metals.  Note  method  of  construction 
so  as  to  take  advantage  of  this  expansion. 

See  that  the  entire  regulating  apparatus  is 
properly  connected,  and  study  the  form  and 
function  of  each  part.  Adjust  the  thumb  nut 
so  that  the  lever  arm  is  balanced  and  the  damper 
suspended  over  the  chimney.  By  turning  the 
thumb  nut  to  the  right  the  incubator  is  cooled, 
and  by  turning  it  to  the  left  the  temperature  is 
raised.     Why  ? 

Trace  the  current  of  warm  air  through  the 
machine  and  out  at  the  bottom.  Notice  methods 
used  to  filter  the  air  and  stop  it  from  flowing 
rapidly.     Why  ? 

Remove  the  top  of  the  incubator  and  note  the 
presence  of  double  walls.  What  is  the  advantage  ? 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       25 

Remove  the  cotton,  felt,  and  cardboard  used  for 
insulation  purposes,  and  note  how  perfectly  the 
machine  is  protected  from  outside  changes  of 
temperature. 

Examine  carefully  all  ventilators,  follow  them 
into  the  machine,  and  determine  how  the  air  is 
made  to  circulate.  Look  for  ventilators  in  the 
bottom  of  the  incubator;  if  absent,  note  the  open 
construction  of  the  bottom.  Note  the  presence 
or  absence  of  a  drop-bottom  which  when  down 
leaves  the  entire  bottom  of  the  incubator  open. 
What  is  the  advantage  of  this  ?  Are  there  any 
special  arrangements  for  supplying  moisture  to 
the  incubator;  if  not,  how  does  the  moisture  get 
to  the  eggs  ? 

After  the  machine  has  been  thoroughly  in- 
spected, replace  all  internal  parts  in  their  proper 
positions,  close  the  door,  and  leave  the  entire 
machine  in  first-class  condition  for  running. 

Note  the  position  in  which  the  machine  is 
placed  with  reference  to  danger  from  fire  and 
the  probability  of  strong  drafts  of  air  blowing 
directly  upon  it. 

Repeat  these  observations,  using  every  differ- 
ent make  of  incubators  possible. 


26       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

EXERCISE     VIII 

Running  an  Incubator 

Previous  to  each  hatch  thoroughly  overhaul 
the  incubator^  clean  inside  and  out,  and  wash  all 
internal  parts  with  a  carbolic  solution.  The 
lamp  should  be  cleaned,  filled,  and  a  new  wick 
put  in. 

Start  the  lamp  and  run  the  incubator  for 
seven  days  before  putting  the  eggs  in,  to  test  its 
accuracy  and  see  that  it  is  properly  adjusted; 
during  this  time  regulate  with  the  thumb  nut 
until  the  incubator  reads  the  desired  temperature 
constantly.  To  cool  the  egg  chamber  turn  the 
thumb  nut  to  the  right,  to  warm  turn  to  the 
left.     Why? 

Before  putting  the  eggs  in  the  machine,  place 
them  in  a  warm  room  so  that  they  will 
gradually  warm  up  and  not  be  subjected  to  too 
sudden  a  change.  The  eggs  may  completely  cover 
the  tray  but  must  not  be  on  top  of  one  another. 

Trim  and  fill  the  lamp  once  a  day,  at  a  regular 
time  each  day.  Do  not  fill  too  full,  and  keep 
all  oil  wiped  from  the  lamp.  Be  sure  that  the 
lamp  is  set  firmly  and  properly  in  the  incubator, 
thus  avoiding  danger  from  fire  and  smoke.  After 
lighting  lamp  and  placing  in  position  leave  it 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE  27 

turned  low  for  a  few  moments  until  it  burns 
up  and  then  it  may  be  safely  turned  to  the  de- 
sired height.  Never  leave  lamp  flame  turned  up 
high  enough  so  that  there  will  be  any  danger  from 
smoking.  Keep  flame  the  same  and  do  all  regu- 
lating by  the  thumb  nut,  except  in  some  cases  the 
lamp  wick  will  need  turning  down  on  the  nine- 
teenth day.  Why?  Do  not  allow  any  drafts 
of  air  to  blow  directly  on  the  lamp. 

On  the  evening  of  the  third  day  take  out  the 
eggs  and  turn  them,  continuing  this  process 
twice  a  day  morning  and  night  until  the  evening 
of  the  eighteenth  day.  What  are  the  objects 
of  turning?  Change  the  position  of  the  trays 
regularly  to  admit  of  all  the  eggs  being  subjected 
to  a  uniform  temperature. 

In  cooling  the  eggs  the  operator  must  be 
governed  by  the  temperature  of  the  room  and 
the  season  of  the  year.  In  general  it  will  be  safe 
to  start  cooling  on  the  fifth  day  and  cool  five 
minutes  if  the  temperature  of  the  room  is  above 
sixty  degrees.  Eggs  require  less  cooling  in  cold 
weather,  the  time  required  for  turning  usually 
being  sufficient.  Gradually  increase  the  length 
of  time  for  cooling  until  during  the  last  week  of 
the  hatch  they  may  be  cooled  for  over  twenty 
minutes  under  favorable  conditions.  What  are 
the  objects  of  cooling  ?     Stop  turning  and  cooling 


28  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

by  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  day,  before  there  is 
any  chance  of  the  chicks  starting  to  pip. 

The  temperature  of  the  incubator  may  range 
from  101  to  104  degrees.  During  the  first  week 
it  should  be  kept  at  101  to  102  degrees  on  the  fer- 
tile egg,  which  means  J. 02  to  103  degrees  above. 
The  temperature  should  gradually  rise  until  the 
end  of  the  hatch,  when  it  should  read  104  de- 
grees. Never  let  the  incubator  run  over  106 
degrees,  a  high  temperature  during  the  first  week 
of  the  hatch  being  more  fatal  than  during  the 
latter  part. 

The  amount  of  ventilation  and  moisture  de- 
pends largely  on  the  kind  of  incubator  used  and 
on  the  relative  humidity  of  the  incubator  room. 
Enough  fresh  air  should  always  be  admitted  to 
supply  fresh  oxygen  to  the  eggs,  but  it  should  not 
be  admitted  in  sufficient  quantity  to  cause  a  too 
rapid  evaporation  of  their  contents.  Moisture 
is  supplied  in  different  ways  and  amounts  in  the 
various  makes  of  incubators. 

Study  carefully  the  different  systems  of  ven- 
tilation and  the  various  methods  of  supplying 
moisture.  Which  is  the  simplest,  which  gives 
the  best  results,  and  why  ? 

Keep  a  careful  record  of  all  the  work  done. 
Plot  the  temperature  and  moisture  curve,  and 
compare  with  the  ideal. 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       29 

Figure  carefully  the  following  percentages  :  — 

Per  cent  of  fertile  eggs  to  total  eggs. 

Per  cent  dead  germs  to  fertile  eggs. 

Per  cent  broken  to  fertile  eggs. 

Per  cent  dead  in  shell  to  fertile  eggs. 

Per  cent  crippled  to  fertile  eggs. 

Per  cent  vigorous  chicks  to  fertile  eggs. 

Per  cent  vigorous  chicks  to  total  eggs. 

The  following  is  a  very  satisfactory  form  of 
incubator  record  containing  all  the  facts  per- 
taining to  the  hatch. 


EXERCISE  IX 

Selection,    Care,    and    Place    of    Setting 
A  Hen 

The  majority  of  chicks  are  hatched  by  the 
natural  method,  and  where  only  a  few  fowls  are 
to  be  kept  this  method  is  usually  very  satisfactory. 

Mature  fowls  are  better  than  pullets  for  in- 
cubating eggs;  not  all  hens  make  good  sitters, 
however;  for  that  reason  select  with  care  a  bird 
possessed  with  as  many  of  the  following  qualifi- 
cations as  possible.  She  should  be  of  medium 
size,  in  perfect  health,  neither  thin  nor  grossly  fat, 
possessed  of  a  quiet,  gentle  disposition,  allowing 
herself  to  be  easily  handled  after  dark ;  she  should 


30 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 


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32  POULTRY   LABORATORY    GUIDE 

feel  warm  to  the  hand  when  it  is  placed  under  the 
body  with  the  finger  touching  the  skin. 

If  only  a  few  hens  are  to  be  set,  almost  any 
place  where  they  will  be  free  from  disturbances 
will  be  satisfactory.  A  barrel,  box,  or  specially 
prepared  shelter  may  be  placed  on  the  south  side 
of  a  building,  wall,  or  bank  where  it  is  protected 
from  winds  and  storms. 

If  a  large  number  are  to  be  set,  the  nests  are 
placed  in  surplus  stock  pens  or  in  houses  from 
which  layers  have  been  removed.  Wherever 
the  nest  is  located,  thoroughly  disinfect,  cleanse, 
and  see  that  no  vermin  are  present. 

Nests  must  be  roomy,  neat,  and  natural,  and 
must  be  provided  with  a  small  door  or  curtain 
to  darken  the  nest  and  keep  the  hen  contented 
and  comfortable.  It  should  usually  not  be 
smaller  than  twelve  by  fourteen  inches. 

Place  in  the  bottom  of  the  completed  nest 
loose,  dry  loam,  firming  same  and  hollowing  out 
place  in  the  centre,  being  sure  to  keep  corners 
and  sides  high.  Why?  Place  medium-length 
straw,  hay,  or  excelsior  in  the  nest,  pressing  it 
down  firmly  to  form  the  hollow  shape.  Dust 
thoroughly  with  lice  powder,  and  place  two  or 
three  china  eggs  in  the  same. 

After  dark  select  the  hen,  dust  her  carefully 
with  lice  powder,  working  it  into  the  feathers 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       33 

close  to  the  skin,  place  her  gently  on  the  eggs,  and 
close  the  nests.  Towards  the  evening  of  the 
next  day  remove  curtain  and  open  door.  If 
after  coming  off  to  eat  and  drink  she  returns  to 
her  nest,  the  sitting  of  thirteen  eggs  may  be  safely 
placed  under  her. 

Provide  fresh  water,  whole  grain,  preferably 
corn,  and  some  fine  dry  loam  for  dusting.  Open 
the  nest  morning  and  night  for  her  to  come  off 
to  eat,  drink,  and  dust  herself  ;  after  she  returns, 
which  is  usually  about  twenty  to  thirty  minutes, 
close  the  nest  again.  Thoroughly  dust  the  hen 
every  seven  days  with  lice  powder,  and  test  the 
eggs  on  the  seventh  and  fourteenth  days. 

Number  each  nest  consecutively,  —  No.  1  for 
the  first  hen  set.  Fasten  over  each  nest  a  card 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  the  nest,  upon 
which  an  accurate  record  should  be  kept  showing 
the  following  facts :  — 

Date  when  set. 

Variety  and  kind  of  eggs. 

Number  of  eggs. 

Date  of  first  test,  number  fertile,  infertile, 
and  dead. 

Date  of  second  test,  number  fertile  and 
number  dead. 

The  hatch. 

Number  of  live  chicks  taken  from  the  nest. 


34       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

Number  of  dead  in  the  shell. 

If  the  nests  are  out  of  doors,  the  above  record 
can  be  kept  in  a  book  or  the  card  kept  on  file  and 
used  when  needed. 

Never  set  the  same  hen  twice  the  same  season. 


EXERCISE  X 
Testing,  Seventh  and  Fourteenth  Days 

For  testing  satisfactorily  the  room  must  be 
made  totally  dark,  as  light  makes  the  contents  of 
the  egg  less  visible. 

The  light  for  testing  may  be  supplied  by  a 
kerosene  lamp,  acetylene  lamp,  or  by  an  electric 
light  placed  in  a  small  box,  in  which  has  been 
bored  a  round  hole  one  inch  in  diameter  on  a 
level  with  the  most  intense  part  of  the  light. 
When  kerosene  lamps  are  employed,  specially 
constructed  chimneys  are  available  for  this  pur- 
pose. Acetylene  lamps  or  electric  lights  are  the 
best. 

When  everything  in  the  testing  room  has  been 
made  ready,  the  eggs  should  be  taken  from  the 
incubator  in  the  tray  and  set  on  the  table  at 
the  left  of  the  testing  lamp.  At  the  right  of  the 
lamp  should  be  placed  a  duplicate  tray  to  re- 
ceive the  tested  eggs. 


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POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       35 

The  circular  opening  should  be  about  six  inches 
above  the  waist  line  for  the  best  work.  Take 
the  untested  eggs  in  the  left  hand,  two  or  three 
at  a  time,  transfer  them  one  at  a  time  to  the 
right  hand,  grasping  the  eggs  between  the  thumb 
and  two  first  fingers  with  the  large  or  air-cell  end 
outwards.  Place  this  large  end  in  the  circular 
opening  in  the  testing  box,  gently  revolve  the 
egg  between  the  fingers,  and  the  strong  rays  of 
light  will  penetrate  the  egg,  making  its  contents 
visible.  This  causes  the  germ,  if  present,  to 
change  its  position,  making  it  the  more  easily 
distinguished. 

The  important  facts  to  be  noted  in  the  first 
test  are  the  following :  — 

Size  and  location  of  air  cell. 

Infertile  eggs. 

Dead  germs. 

Germs  adhering  to  the  shell. 

Cracked  eggs. 
I.  The  size  of  the  air  cell  varies  with  the  period 
of  incubation  and  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
liquids  of  the  egg  have  evaporated  during  incu- 
bation. The  more  moisture  in  the  air  the  less 
evaporation,  and  consequently  the  smaller  air 
cell ;  the  drier  the  air  the  more  evaporation 
and  the  larger  the  air  cell.  Under  normal 
humid  conditions    the   air  cell   of  a  hen's  egg 


36  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

will  appear  in  size  approximately  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

5th  day,  {  of  one  inch  deep. 
10th  day,  |  of  one  inch  deep. 
15th  day,  |  of  one  inch  deep. 
19th  day,  |  of  one  inch  deep. 

If  the  air  cell  is  too  large,  moisture  must  be  in- 
creased to  stop  rapid  evaporation,  and  if  too 
small,  evaporation  must  be  increased.  An  air 
cell  which  is  not  in  its  normal  position  at  the 
large  end  of  the  egg  will  probably  result  in  a 
crippled  chick  if  it  succeeds  in  getting  out  of  the 
shell.     It  is  caused  by  insufficient  turning. 

II.  Any  egg  which  appears  clear  or  translu- 
cent with  no  dark  lines  appearing  in  its  centre 
is  infertile.  Mark  all  infertile  eggs  in  some  dis- 
tinguishing manner,  and  put  in  separate  tray. 
They  may  be  used  for  chick  feeding  when  hard 
boiled,  and  if  tested  on  the  fifth  day  are  perfectly 
safe  for  culinary  purposes. 

III.  A  normal  egg  will  show  an  air  cell  with  the 
edge  clear-cut  and  distinct;  upon  slightly  re- 
volving, the  germ  will  be  seen  to  move  about  in 
the  egg.  Rotating  from  the  germ  and  circulating 
around  in  the  egg  will  be  seen  numerous  dark 
lines  or  veins. 

An  egg  showing  a  fixed  bright  red  line  in  the 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE  37 

form  of  a  circle  or  semicircle  around  the  germ 
is  dead,  the  blood  of  the  embryo  having  settled 
on  the  shell. 

An  egg  on  which  the  germ  appears  clear  and 
distinct  as  a  single  dark  spot  against  the  shell  is 
dead,  having  become  fastened  to  it  by  insufficient 
turning.  Remove  all  eggs  containing  dead 
germs,  and  when  through  testing  bury  them. 

An  egg  showing  an  air  cell  and  a  small,  poorly 
developed  germ  is  weak,  and  the  chances  are  that 
it  will  die.  It  should,  however,  be  left  in  the 
machine  until  the  fourteenth  day. 

When  through  testing,  place  all  good  eggs  with 
normal  germs  in  the  machine  immediately,  and 
record  the  number  of  eggs  tested  out  under  their 
proper  headings  on  the  incubator  record. 

On  the  fourteenth  day  proceed  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  first  test.  At  the  second  test 
there  are  two  objects  in  view,  namely:  ob- 
serving the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  air  cell  and 
determining  whether  it  is  normal  or  not,  also  the 
taking  out  of  any  egg,  the  germs  of  which  were 
doubtful  or  have  died  since  the  first  test. 

A  normal  egg  at  this  time  should  have  a  large, 
distinct  air  cell  with  the  edges  clear  cut,  about 
five  eighths  of  an  inch  deep.  The  whole  centre  of 
the  egg  should  be  uniformly  dark  in  color,  nearly 


38  POULTRY    LABORATORY    GUIDE 

opaque,  and  show  no  well-defined  germ  or 
veins,  and  should  shade  to  a  lighter  color  near 
the  pointed  end. 

An  egg  containing  a  dead  germ  at  this  period 
will  show  no  clearly  defined  air  cell,  the  whole  egg 
showing  dark  and  light  colors  in  spots,  which 
gives  it  a  hazy  appearance,  the  dark  portion 
running  irregularly  up  into  the  air  cell.  Mark 
all  eggs  containing  dead  germs  and  bury  them ; 
also  remove  all  cracked  or  broken  eggs.     Why  ? 

Any  egg  which  is  not  clearly  understood  and 
over  which  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  whether  it  is 
dead  or  not  should  be  so  marked  and  placed  in 
the  machine,  a  note  being  kept  whether  it 
hatches  or  not,  and  if  so  what  kind  of  a  chick 
comes  out. 

In  cold  weather  the  eggs  should  be  left  out  no 
longer  than  necessary.  Always  examine  each 
egg  carefully,  and  as  the  appearance  of  normal 
and  abnormal  germs  becomes  more  familiar  try 
to  increase  the  speed  of  handling  the  eggs.  An 
experienced  tester  is  able  to  run  through  240 
eggs  in  from  eight  to  ten  minutes. 


EMBRYOLOGY 
EXERCISE   XI 

FOEMATION   OF    THE    EgG 

Secure  an  old  hen,  and  if  possible  one  in  the 
laying  condition.  Kill  her  by  sticking,  extra 
care  being  taken  to  bleed  thoroughly.  Lay  the 
bird  on  her  back  and  with  a  sharp  knife  skin  the 
breast  and  abdomen  as  far  back  as  the  cloaca. 
Tear  the  peritoneum,  which  is  the  membrane 
lining  the  intestinal  cavity,  and  remove  the 
organs  of  digestion,  namely,  liver,  gizzard,  in- 
testines, spleen,  etc.,  being  very  careful  not  to 
rupture  the  oviduct  or  ovaries. 

At  the  same  time  prepare  a  fresh  egg  for  study. 
Break  the  shell  carefully,  and  allow  the  contents 
to  run  into  a  shallow  dish  without  rupturing  any 
more  than  possible.  Most  of  the  parts  dis- 
cussed can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye. 

Examine  organs  of  reproduction  as  they  lie  in 
their  normal  position.  They  consist  of  a  single 
ovary  and  oviduct;  the  ovary  lying  on  the  left 
side  of  the  body  resembles  somewhat  a  bunch  of 

39 


40       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

grapes,  the  external  appearance  being  that  of  a 
granular  body  attached  to  the  spine  by  a  folding 
of  the  peritoneum.  The  nodules  or  ovum  will 
be  seen  irregular  in  size,  some  small  and  white, 
and  as  they  develop  becoming  large  and  yellow- 
ish. 

Remove  one  of  the  largest  ova,  and  examine 
it  for  the  following  characters.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  ovum  is  caused  by  the  accumulation 
of  the  yellow  or  yolk  food,  which  causes  a  dis- 
tention of  the  ovarian  sack  or  calyx  that  encloses 
the  ovum.  As  it  develops  this  yolk  sack  be- 
comes more  or  less  separated  from  the  ovary  and 
forms  a  complete  covering  for  the  ovum,  remain- 
ing attached  to  the  ovary  only  by  a  narrow  base 
or  stem  called  a  pedicle.  The  calyx  or  yolk  sack 
will  be  seen  to  consist  of  two  membranes  joined 
together  by  connective  tissue  and  blood  vessels. 
These  blood  vessels  seem  to  end  in  a  transverse 
white  line  which  crosses  the  largest  part  of  the 
calyx.  This  band  is  called  the  stigma,  and  begins 
to  appear  when  the  ovum  is  well  developed,  and 
when  fully  developed  the  calyx  gives  way  along 
this  line  and  the  egg  slips  from  its  capsule  and 
passes  into  the  enlarged  funnel-shaped  opening 
of  the  oviduct.  The  empty  sack  collapses, 
diminishing  in  size  rapidly  until  it  is  finally 
absorbed. 


Fig.  16. — Reproductive  Organs  of  Female. 


'V^^ 


(a)  Ovary. 

(b)  Funnel-shaped  opening  to  the  o\-iduct. 

(c)  Portion  of  the  oviduct  which  secretes  the  albumen. 

(d)  Uterus  or  shell-forming  portion. 

(e)  Opening  of  the  oviduct. 

(J)  Intestine.  (g)  Cloaca. 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       41 

Make  an  outline  drawing  of  a  fully  developed 
ovum. 

The  oviduct  is  a  white  tube  which  during  the 
breeding  season  is  larger  than  the  largest  intes- 
tine, covered  with  a  network  of  branching  blood 
vessels.  It  starts  near  the  ovary  with  an  en- 
larged funnel-shaped  opening,  and  follows  a 
curved  course,  being  bent  upon  itself  three  times, 
finally  reaching  the  cloaca,  where  it  opens. 

When  the  o\aim  enters  the  oviduct  it  consists 
of  a  yolk  or  vitellus  enclosed  in  a  thin  vitelline 
membrane.  Immediately  upon  its  entering  this 
organ  fertilization  takes  place,  and  it  is  pro- 
pelled by  the  peristaltic  contraction  of  the  duct 
toward  the  cloaca  with  a  rotary  or  revolving 
motion.  The  passage  of  the  ovum  stimulates 
the  membranes  to  secrete  three  layers  of  albumen 
as  it  moves  along,  the  first  one  being  dense  and 
rich,  containing  threadlike  forms  connected  at 
each  end  which  hold  the  yolk  in  place.  These 
threadlike  pieces  are  called  chalazse,  and  are 
twisted  in  opposite  directions  by  the  rotations  of 
the  ovum.  Each  of  the  following  layers  of  al- 
bumen is  thinner  and  more  watery  than  the 
ones  which  preceded  it. 

When  the  ovum  reaches  the  small  part  of  the 
oviduct  two  dense  layers  of  albumen  are  added, 
which  form  the  inner  and  outer  shell  membrane. 


42       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

A  space  at  the  large  end  between  these  mem- 
branes being  filled  with  air  is  called  the  air  cell. 
As  the  egg,  small  end  first,  nears  the  cloaca,  the 
last  secretion,  consisting  of  a  thin  liquid,  is  added; 
this  condenses  and  forms  the  shell.  The  pas- 
sage of  the  egg  down  the  oviduct  requires  from 
four  to  six  hours'  time.  During  the  non-breeding 
season  the  organs  are  greatly  reduced  in  size  and 
nearly  disappear. 

Remove  the  oviduct,  cross-section  same,  and 
determine  the  different  dilations  which  secrete 
the  various  fluids.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  entire 
oviduct. 

The  color  of  the  shell  depends  upon  pigment 
matter  secreted  by  certain  membranes  of  the 
uterus.  What  are  the  composition  and  function 
of  the  shell? 

EXERCISE  XII 

Formation  of  the  Chick,  from  the  Third 
TO  THE  Sixth  Day 

Take  from  the  incubator  or  from  under  the 
hen  eggs  which  have  been  incubated  for  from 
three  to  six  days,  one  for  each  day.  Test  them 
to  make  sure  that  they  are  fertile  and  of  normal 
development.  Empty  the  contents  of  each  egg 
carefully  into  a  separate  dish,  preferably  porce- 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE  43 

Iain-lined,  using  great  care  not  to.  rupture  the 
yolk.  Examine  with  the  naked  eye,  and  note 
any  great  differences  or  marked  stages  in  their 
development.  A  hand  lens  will  aid  in  more 
clearly  distinguishing  and  understanding  many 
of  the  stages  of  development. 

The  growth  of  the  embryo  up  to  the  seventh 
day  is  briefly  outlined  as  follows :  During  the 
first  twenty-four  hours  the  embryo  develops 
those  parts  which  afterwards  become  some  of  the 
leading  organs  of  the  body,  namely :  the  head, 
the  vitelline  vein,  neural  fold  and  groove.  Note 
the  clear  area  about  the  embryo,  called  the  area 
pellucida.  Note  the  presence  of  a  peculiar  mem- 
brane which  envelops  the  embryo,  forming  a 
cavity  in  which  it  lies.  It  is  made  in  folds,  and 
when  these  folds  meet  and  coalesce  above  the 
embryo,  they  unite  so  that  the  inner  folds  form 
a  continuous  inner  membrane  or  sack  and  the 
outer  membrane  forms  an  outer  membrane  or 
sack.  The  inner  membrane  forms  a  complete 
closed  sack  around  the  embryo,  and  is  called  the 
amniotic  sack,  or  true  amnion.  The  liquid  which 
it  contains  is  called  the  amniotic  fluid.  The 
outer  membrane  lies  close  under  the  vitelline 
membrane  and  is  called  the  false  amnion,  and 
goes  to  make  up  the  serous  membrane  of  the 
body. 


44  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

Note  the  general  shape  of  the  embryo  and  any 
change  in  the  general  position  from  day  to  day. 
Examine  the  development  of  the  brain  as  char- 
acterized by  the  projections  on  the  head.  Lo- 
cate the  following :  cerebral  hemisphere,  fore- 
brain,  mid-brain,  and  cerebellum.  Examine 
carefully  the  development  of  these,  and  note  the 
rapid  development  of  the  optic  vesicle  and  the 
growth  of  the  lens.  Just  above  and  a  Uttle  to 
the  rear  of  the  optic  vesicle  will  be  seen  the 
auditory  pit  or  vesicle.  At  the  base  of  the  head 
fold,  below  the  optic  vesicle,  will  be  seen  the 
heart,  and  running  from  it  are  the  numerous 
veins  and  arteries  which  form  the  vascular 
system.  The  heart  begins  to  beat  and  blood  to 
flow  during  the  second  day.  The  vascular  sys- 
tem increases  in  size  very  rapidly,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  third  day  is  nearly  complete. 

Passing  down  the  body  of  the  embryo  in  the 
centre  will  be  seen  a  dark  line,  which  is  called 
the  noto-cord,  and  develops  into  the  spinal  cord. 
On  each  side  of  this  cord  will  be  seen  small  dark 
projections  called  the  proto-vertebrse,  which  later 
form  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column.  On  the 
third  day  the  embryo  turns  on  its  left  side,  the 
head  bends  downward,  the  vitelline  circulation  is 
completed,  and  the  events  after  that  day  are 
distinguished  by  the  extension  of  parts  already 


Fig.  17. —  Embryo   Chick   on   Third   Day. 
Seen  from  below,  with  head  turned  to  one  side. 


ia')    False  amnion. 

{ov) 

Optic  vesicle. 

(a)     Amnion. 

(at) 

Auditory  vesicle. 

{ch)    Cerebral  hemisphere. 

(h) 

Heart. 

{ah)   Anterior  cerebral  vesicle. 

iv) 

Veins  and  arteries 

(mb)  Middle  cerebral  vesicle. 

{nc) 

Notochord. 

<p6)  Posterior  cerebral  vesicle. 

(pv) 

Proto  vertebrae. 

POULTEY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  45 

marked  out  rather  than  by  the  formation  of  new 
ones.  On  the  fourth  day  the  wing  fold  appears 
midway  on  the  curvature  of  the  body,  and  the 
folds  forming  the  hind  limbs  also  appear,  being 
shorter  than  the  front  limbs.  The  embryo  in- 
creases greatly  in  size. 

Make  a  sketch  of  the  six-day-old  embryo,  show- 
ing the  organs  above  named.  Take  notes  on  the 
differences  seen  in  the  various-aged  embryos, 
briefly  describing  changes  as  seen. 


EXERCISE  XIII 

Development  of  the  Chick  from  the  Eighth 
TO  THE  Nineteenth  Day 

Take  from  the  incubator  or  from  under  the 
hen  eggs  whose  embryos  are  eight,  twelve,  sixteen, 
and  nineteen  days  old  respectively,  and  test  to  see 
if  they  are  normal.  Carefully  break  the  shell  and 
place  contents  in  shallow  dish,  using  great  care 
not  to  break  the  yolk.  Examine  carefully  with 
the  naked  eye  the  development  which  the  em- 
bryo makes  from  day  to  day. 

From  the  seventh  day  on,  the  business  of  the 
chick  (for  such  it  may  now  be  called)  is  to  grow, 
and  it  is  only  necessary  to  notice  a  few  of  the 
more  important  changes  which  take  place  bring- 


46       POULTKY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

ing  about  the  distinctive  type  of  the  species  and 
variety. 

The  feathers  begin  to  appear  on  the  ninth  day: 
by  the  thirteenth  day  they  are  found  all  over  the 
body  to  the  length  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  The 
sacks  in  which  they  are  enclosed  do  not  break 
until  after  hatching.  The  white  of  the  egg  will 
be  seen  to  have  disappeared,  and  a  very  thick 
viscid  mass  remains  at  the  lower  surface  of  the 
egg.  Note  the  greatly  increased  length  of  the 
limbs  and  the  division  of  the  distal  ends  into 
fingers  and  toes. 

On  the  eighth  day  the  beak  begins  to  form,  and 
can  be  distinguished  as  a  chalky-looking  mass, 
which  by  the  twelfth  day  has  developed  into  a 
horny  beak,  although  still  soft.  On  the  thir- 
teenth day  the  nails  may  be  seen,  which  together 
with  the  beak  are  considerably  hardened  by  the 
sixteenth  day.  During  the  fourteenth  day  the 
embryo  moves  its  position  so  that  it  lies  length- 
wise in  the  shell,  its  beak  touching  the  inner  shell 
membrane ;  the  air  space  at  the  broad  end  will 
be  seen  greatly  enlarged.  It  is  in  this  position 
that  the  chick  must  lie  in  order  to  make  its  way 
out  of  the  shell.  If  not  so  placed,  it  will  represent 
a  false  presentation  and  will  probably  be  unable 
to  make  its  exit. 

By  the  twelfth  day  the  chick  will  be  seen  to 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       47 

occupy  the  whole  of  the  shell  except  the  air  space. 
The  yolk  will  be  seen  almost  entirely  absorbed, 
the  walls  being  loose  and  flabby.  Just  previous 
to  hatching  the  yolk  is  drawn  into  the  body,  the 
walls  closing  over  it  at  the  umbilicus.  This  yolk 
enclosed  within  the  body  serves  to  supply  the 
chick  with  food  for  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours 
after  hatching. 

Notice  the  movement  of  the  embryo  after  the 
fourteenth  day,  also  the  beating  of  the  heart, 
which  will  continue  for  a  long  time  after  the 
embryo  has  been  taken  from  the  egg. 

Make  a  sketch  of  the  embryo  as  seen  on  the 
fourteenth  day,  marking  all  the  parts. 

The  following  is  the  process  of  hatching,  briefly 
described.  CarefuUy  observe  same  when  the 
chicks  are  hatching  in  the  incubator. 

When  ready  to  come  out,  the  chick  raises  its 
head  and  pierces  the  inner  shell  membrane,  and 
immediately  starts  breathing  the  air  in  the  cham- 
ber, which  causes  the  pulmonary  circulation  to 
become  active  and  the  embryonic  circulation  to 
cease.  The  head  is  next  raised  into  the  air  cham- 
ber, and  the  chick  deals  blows  upon  the  sheU, 
which  when  often  repeated  in  the  same  place 
result  in  fracturing  it.  This  process  is  repeated 
until  the  shell  is  broken  around  about  one  third 
of  the  way  from  the  large  end.     The  chick  then 


48  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

presses  its  head  against  the  large  end  and  its 
feet  against  the  small  end,  and  then  by  pushing 
is  able  to  throw  off  the  shell  lid  and  make  its 
exit. 

By  observation  note  the  length  of  time  which 
it  takes  for  the  chick  to  get  free  from  the  shell 
from  the  time  that  it  starts  to  pip. 


ARTIFICIAL   BROODING 

EXERCISE  XIV 

Location  and  Construction  of  Brooder 
Houses 

The  following  systems  in  brooder  house  design 
are  in  common  use. 

(a)  Long  house. 

1.  Continuous  hover  heated  by  hot- 
water  pipes. 

2.  Indoor   individual   brooder,    double 
or  single,  heated  by  kerosene  lamps. 

3.  Equipped  with  fireless  brooders. 

(b)  Small  colony  brooder  house  with  indoor 
brooder. 

In  long  brooder  houses  the  entire  house  is 
usually  kept  at  the  desired  temperature  by 
means  of  wall  or  ceiling  coils  of  pipes,  and  the 
hovers  are  heated  separately. 

Which  of  these  systems  are  in  use  on  the 
plant  being  studied  ? 

Note  the  location  of  the  brooder  house  with 
reference  to  the  incubator  cellar.  Is  it  near  at 
hand  or  at  considerable  distance?  Which  is 
E  49 


50       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

best,  and  why?  Note  the  location  with  refer- 
ence to  the  prevaihng  wind  direction.  Are  the 
windows,  doors,  and  yards  so  placed  as  to  receive 
protection  from  the  building  itself?  Note  its 
location  with  reference  to  the  points  of  the  com- 
pass, observing  the  various  amounts  of  sunshine 
which  enter  the  house  at  various  times  during 
the  day. 

What  type  of  roof  is  used?  Do  you  think 
the  one  in  use  has  any  advantage  over  other 
types  ?  Are  the  walls  single  or  double  ?  Which 
of  the  following  materials  are  used  for  the  outside 
walls  :  shingles,  clapboards,  or  paper  ?  With  a 
tape,  measure  the  surface  to  be  covered  and  figure 
the  relative  first  cost  of  these  three  materials. 
Considering  durability,  which  material  would 
it  be  most  desirable  to  use  ?  Note  the  height 
.  and  width  of  the  building.  Estimate  the  amount 
of  material  used  in  construction,  and  figure  the 
cost  of  same  per  running  foot.  Does  a  walk  run 
through  the  centre  of  the  building  with  pens 
running  towards  each  wall,  or  is  the  walk  arranged 
on  one  side  with  the  pens  running  to  the  front  ? 
Is  the  walk  on  a  level  with  the  floor  of  the  build- 
ing, or  is  it  depressed  ?  The  advantages  of  the 
latter  are  as  follows :  — 

I.  The  ease  with  which  the  brooders  and 
lamps  can  be  attended. 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  51 

II.  By  having  the  chick  floor  elevated,  the 
chicks  are  brought  nearer  the  ceihng,  which  is 
the  warm  part  of  the  house ;  this  reduces  the 
enclosed  air  space,  which  means  a  saving  of  heat 
required  to  maintain  a  given  temperature. 

If  a  pipe  brooder  house,  examine  the  con- 
struction of  the  hover.  Are  the  pipes  carried 
through  the  top  of  the  hovers,  supplying  heat 
from  above,  or  are  the  pipes  carried  under  the 
hover,  supplying  heat  by  means  of  a  drum  in  the 
centre?  The  latter  method  is  rapidly  coming 
into  general  use.  Observe  the  height  of  the 
windows  from  the  brooder  floor,  also  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  muslin  curtains  at  the  windows 
for  ventilation.  Is  the  building  supplied  with 
ventilators  for  carrying  off  the  dust  and  foul  air  ? 
Test  the  ventilators  with  light  fluffy  feathers  or  a 
lighted  match  to  see  if  they  work  the  right  way. 

Are  there  any  labor-saving  devices  such  as 
mechanical  fixtures  for  opening  and  shutting 
windows,  cords  or  pulleys  for  raising  or  lowering 
hovers,  thermostatic  arrangements  for  regulat- 
ing the  temperature  of  the  room,  etc.?  If  so, 
note  their  construction  and  arrangement. 

Note  the  construction  of  the  inside  pens. 
Does  the  wire  run  to  the  ceiling,  and  does  the 
attendant  enter  the  pen  to  clean,  feed,  and  water, 
or  are  the  pens  constructed  with  a  covering  of 


52       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

wire  about  a  foot  from  the  floor,  allowing  the 
work  to  be  done  from  the  walk  by  simply  re- 
moving or  raising  the  wire  frame  ?  The  latter 
method  is  adapted  for  young  chicks  and  espe- 
cially where  individual  brooders  are  used. 

Figure  the  total  square  inches  under  the  hovers, 
also  the  total  square  inches  of  chick  floor  space 
in  the  whole  house,  and  determine  the  capacity. 
Each  chick  requires  about  four  to  five  square 
inches  of  hover  space  the  first  week,  which 
amount  should  gradually  increase  until  at  six 
to  eight  weeks  of  age  they  require  from  ten  to 
twelve  square  inches  of  hover  space.  The  idea 
is  to  give  them  sufficient  room  to  spread  out  and 
not  to  crowd. 

Is  the  heater  located  in  the  centre  of  the 
brooder  house  or  at  the  end  ?  If  the  runs  of  the 
pipe  are  to  be  over  one  hundred  feet,  the  heater 
will  prove  more  efficient  if  placed  in  the  centre 
with  the  runs  of  pipes  running  each  way;  if  less 
than  one  hundred  feet,  it  is  best  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  house. 

Note.  —  See  Frontispiece. 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE  53 

EXERCISE  XV 
A  Study  of  the  Artificial  Brooder 

There  are  four  requirements  for  a  successful 
brooder :  — 

I.  An  inviting,  properly  ventilated  hover  to 
which  the  chicks  may  flock  at  any  time  and 
warm  up  quickly. 

II.  A  ventilated  and  lighted  brooder  or  apart- 
ment warm  enough  to  prevent  the  chicks  from 
chilling. 

III.  A  run  protected  from  the  wind  and  storms 
by  being  enclosed  within  a  brooder  house. 

IV.  An  outside  yard  available  in  pleasant 
weather. 

An  indoor  brooder  must  of  itself  supply  the 
first  two  requirements ;  while  the  outdoor 
brooder  must  supply  the  first  three  to  be  com- 
plete. 

Having  gathered  together  all  available 
brooders  of  as  many  makes  as  possible,  carefully 
examine  them  to  see  how  perfectly  each  one  is 
designed  to  fulfil  the  above-mentioned  require- 
ments. 

First  examine  the  indoor  brooders  and  note 
the  following  points.  Some  are  constructed  with 
single  and  some  with  double  hovers,  in  either 


54       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

case  one  lamp  being  sufficient  to  supply  the  nec- 
essary heat.  Remove  or  open  the  top  of  the 
hover  and  examine  the  method  of  heating.  Fol- 
low the  course  of  the  warm  air  from  the  lamp 
through  the  heat  tubes.  Note  the  varying 
amount  of  radiating  area.  Some  heating  ar- 
rangements will  be  seen  to  be  very  complex, 
others  very  simple. 

Hovers  will  be  seen  of  various  shapes,  some 
square,  others  round,  and  in  some  the  heat  is 
radiated  from  above  and  in  others  from  the  side. 
Which  do  you  consider  best  and  why  ?  Do  you 
ever  find  the  heat  coming  from  below  ?  If  not, 
why  ? 

Note  the  way  that  the  hover  is  ventilated. 
Is  it  sufficient,  in  your  estimation  ?  Also  notice 
the  ease  with  which  the  various  hovers  can  be 
properly  cleaned  and  ventilated,  as  well  as  the 
ease  with  which  the  attendant  can  observe  the 
chicks  when  they  go  under  the  hover.  Is  the 
hover  movable  or  stationary  ?  Which  is  best  ? 
Does  the  method  of  heating  the  hover  give  it  a 
uniform  temperature  throughout?  Notice  the 
method  of  taking  the  temperature  by  inserting  a 
thermometer  through  the  top  of  the  hover.  In 
some  hovers  there  will  be  found  a  thermostat 
for  automatically  regulating  the  temperature; 
with  others  it  is  necessary  to  raise  and  lower  the 


0  2 


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POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  55 

hover  to  change  the  temperature;  in  still  others 
the  hover  is  turned ;  while  in  some  all  regulating 
must  be  done  by  the  lamp.  What  material  is 
used  to  separate  the  hover  from  the  brooder 
apartment  and  yet  allow  the  chicks  to  move  in 
and  out  at  will  ?  How  is  this  material  prepared 
and  attached  ? 

Note  the  presence,  except  in  the  Universal 
hovers,  of  a  large,  well-lighted,  and  ventilated 
brooder  apartment  closely  connected  with  the 
hover,  in  which  the  chicks  may  stay  when  not 
desiring  the  heated  hover. 

When  studying  the  brooder  take  it  to  pieces 
whenever  possible,  noting  the  kind  of  lumber 
used,  how  it  is  fastened  together,  and  position 
and  attachment  of  the  lamp.  Measure  the  floor 
space  of  the  hover,  and  determine  the  capacity  of 
the  brooder. 

Outdoor  Brooder 

Examine  all  outdoor  brooders,  and  determine 
if  they  fulfil  the  requirements  outlined  at  the 
beginning  of  the  exercise,  observing  the  same 
points  that  have  been  noted  in  regard  to  the 
indoor  brooder. 

Besides  the  hover  and  the  brooder  compart- 
ment the  modern  outdoor  brooder  will  be  found 


56  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

to  possess  a  third  compartment ;  namely,  a  run 
protected  from  the  wind  and  rain,  in  which  the 
chicks  may  exercise  when  the  weather  is  not 
suitable  for  them  to  be  out  of  doors. 

Examine  the  construction,  carefully  noting 
the  double  walls,  position  of  the  lamp,  and  pres- 
ence of  a  chimney,  also  the  way  in  which  the 
roof  is  constructed  and  attached  to  the  brooder 
and  how  the  entire  brooder  is  made  waterproof. 

EXERCISE   XVI 

Art  of  Running  a  Brooder 

Successful  brooding  depends  on  the  conditions 
affecting  the  egg  before  and  during  incubation, 
also  upon  the  circumstances  and  conditions 
affecting  the  chick  during  the  brooding  period. 
Four  days  before  the  brooders  are  to  receive  the 
chicks,  give  them  a  thorough  overhauling  and 
cleaning.  Wash  all  inside  parts  with  a  five  per 
cent  solution  of  creolin;  see  that  the  heat  tubes, 
if  any,  are  properly  connected.  Start  the  lamp 
so  as  to  have  the  brooders  properly  warmed  and 
regulated  before  the  chicks  are  ready.  Empty 
out  any  old  kerosene  which  may  be  in  the  lamp, 
put  in  a  new  wick,  fill  with  new  kerosene,  and  see 
that  the  wick  is  properly  trimmed.  When  plac- 
ing the  lamp  in  the  brooder,  see  that  it  is  set 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       57 

firmly  in  place  and  that  the  chimney  is  set  firmly 
on  the  burner.  Turn  the  flame  low  at  first. 
After  the  brooder  has  thoroughly  dried,  cover 
the  floor  about  an  inch  deep  with  fine  sand  over 
which  place  fine  chaff,  preferably  in  the  form  of 
clover  or  alfaha  leaves. 

Keep  the  temperatiu"e  under  the  hover  from 
ninety-five  to  ninety-eight  degrees  the  first  week, 
gradually  lower  it  to  about  eighty  degrees  the 
second,  and  during  the  third  week  it  may  drop  to 
seventy  degrees.  The  chicks  themselves  will 
show  to  the  careful  observer  the  temperature 
which  should  be  maintained,  the  object  being  to 
keep  them  comfortable.  A  great  variation  in 
temperature  must  be  avoided. 

Remove  the  chicks  to  the  brooder  in  closed 
basket  or  nursery  drawer  when  they  are  from 
thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours  old,  taking  care 
not  to  chill  them  during  the  transferring.  Place 
them  under  the  hover,  about  fifty  to  each 
brooder.  Supply  them  with  an  abundance  of 
white  crystal  grit  and  fresh  water  for  the  first 
day,  all  other  food  being  withheld.     Why  ? 

During  the  first  twenty-four  hours  confine 
them  closely  to  the  hover  so  they  will  learn  where 
to  go  and  warm  up  quickly,  thus  largely  pre- 
venting huddling,  after  which  time  they  may  be 
allowed  the  run  of  the  brooder. 


58       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

The  hover  as  well  as  the  entire  brooder  should 
be  well  ventilated,  so  that  an  abundant  supply  of 
fresh  air  may  be  drawn  into  the  same  and  gently 
forced  into  the  hover.  On  warm,  pleasant  days, 
when  the  chicks  are  out,  open  the  brooder  as 
much  as  possible,  allowing  the  sun  to  strike  all 
parts  of  it. 

Keep  the  brooder  dry  and  clean. 

Once  a  week  clean  the  brooder  thoroughly,  put- 
ting in  fresh  sand  and  litter.  Sprinkle  a  little 
clean  sand  on  the  floor  daily.  Thoroughly  cleanse 
and  disinfect  the  brooder  before  each  brood. 

Keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  temperature 
of  brooder  and  room,  also  of  all  deaths  as  they 
occur,  together  with  any  notes  in  regard  to  the 
same,  as  symptoms,  general  appearance,  probable 
cause  of  death,  etc.  The  accompanying  brooder 
record  will  be  found  especially  adapted  to  this 
purpose. 

Note.  —  The  feeding  of  little  chicks  is  purposely 
omitted,  as  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  subject  is  not  in 
line  with  the  object  of  this  work. 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 


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60  POULTRY   LABORATORY    GUIDE 


EXERCISE  XVII 

Housing,  Location,  and  Care  of  Hens  and 
Chicks 

Houses  or  shelters  for  hens  with  chicks  may 
be  very  simple  and  inexpensive.  An  empty 
barrel  laid  on  its  side,  raised  a  few  inches 
from  the  ground,  provides  an  efficient  shelter. 
A-shaped  coops  constructed  of  lumber  from  dry 
goods  boxes,  barrel  staves,  etc.,  make  suitable 
houses. 

Whatever  kind  of  a  shelter  is  used  it  should  be 
at  least  one  and  one  half  by  two  feet  square,  and 
must  be  provided  with  a  wooden  floor  to  keep 
out  vermin.  It  should  also  be  provided  with  a 
wire  or  board  door  for  use  at  night  to  keep  out 
all  prowlers.  If  located  out  of  doors,  the  house 
must  be  raised  a  few  inches  from  the  ground  to 
keep  water  from  standing  in  it,  and  it  should  have 
a  sloping  roof  which  is  waterproof.  A  shelter 
for  protecting  the  front  of  the  coop  in  bad 
weather  may  be  constructed  of  boards  about 
three  feet  wide  and  allowed  to  project  over  the 
front. 

Construct  a  suitable  shelter,  keeping  in  mind 
the  above  requirements. 

Place  the  coop  in  the  shelter  of  some  building, 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  61 

hedge,  or  wall,  facing  it  to  the  south  or  east  and 
where  the  chicks  can  find  abundant  shade  if  they 
desire.  Cover  the  floor  about  two  inches  deep 
with  nesting  material  cut  fine. 

If  the  shelter  in  which  the  chicks  were  hatched 
is  in  good  condition,  it  will  be  best  to  let  the  hen 
brood  them  in  the  same  nest.  Twenty-four  to 
thirty-six  hours  after  hatching  carefully  remove 
the  chicks  for  a  few  minutes  while  the  old  nesting 
material  is  cleaned  out,  the  nest  disinfected  with 
a  carbolic  spray,  and  new  nesting  material  re- 
placed. 

As  the  chicks  are  placed  under  the  hen,  mark 
them  with  a  punch  well  into  the  web,  taking  care 
not  to  injure  the  bones  of  the  foot.  The  marks 
are  to  designate  different  matings.  Replace 
only  the  strong,  healthy  chicks,  remove  and  kill 
any  weak  ones,  allowing  twelve  to  fourteen 
chicks  to  a  large  hen  and  nine  to  a  small  one. 

Keep  the  hen  and  chicks  close  to  the  coop  for 
the  first  few  days  until  they  get  strong  and  know 
their  home.  If  cats,  hawks,  and  other  enemies 
are  troublesome,  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide 
covered  runs  until  the  chicks  are  four  weeks  old. 

Dust  the  hen  and  nest  often  with  hce  powder, 
and  watch  the  chicks  for  head  and  body  hce; 
should  head  hce  appear,  rub  lard  on  the  head, 
which  will  cause  them  to  leave. 


62  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

Keep  fresh  water,  grit,  and  an  abundance  of 
green  food  before  them  all  the  time. 

Keep  a  record  of  each  hen  and  her  chicks,  the 
per  cent  of  mortahty,  the  gain  in  weight,  and  the 
apparent  health  and  vigor  of  each  brood,  and 
compare  with  artificial  brooding. 

Note.  —  See  Figure  14. 

EXERCISE  XVIII 
Crate  Fattening 

The  main  requirements  for  economical  fatten- 
ing are:  — 

I.  The  partial  confinement  of  young  fowls. 

II.  The  feeding  at  regular  intervals,  two  or 
three  times  a  day,  of  a  suitable  mixture  of  ground 
feed. 

Construct  a  fattening  crate  out  of  1  x  2  inch 
scantling  and  laths,  making  it  two  feet  high  and 
dividing  it  into  three  or  four  pens,  each  of  which 
should  be  about  2  x  23^^  feet.  Each  pen  will  then 
hold  from  four  to  six  birds,  depending  on  the 
size.  Provide  a  shelf  on  the  front,  level  with  the 
floor,  for  the  feed  troughs. 

Place  the  crate  in  a  building  which  can  be 
partially  darkened,  raising  it  about  three  feet 
from  the  ground  and  placing  it  back  to  the  wall 
if  possible.     If  it  is  desired  to  fatten  a  large  num- 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE  63 

ber,  the  crates  may  be  placed  one  above  the  other 
to  economize  space.  Construct  a  V-shaped  feed- 
ing trough  out  of  1  X  4  inch  boards. 

Success  in  crate  fattening  depends  largely  on 
the  selection  of  the  birds  to  be  fattened.  The 
Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes  give  much 
better  results  than  the  smaller  breeds. 

Next  select  the  birds  for  fattening,  choosing 
only  those  which  are  strong  and  healthy,  those 
which  have  a  large  frame  capable  of  putting  on  a 
lot  of  flesh,  and  those  which  have  yellow  skin 
and  shanks.  White  plumage  is  preferable  to 
colored,  as  the  bird  dresses  better. 

Having  selected  the  birds,  leg-band  them  and 
weigh  carefully,  keeping  an  accurate  record  of 
each. 

Place  them  in  the  crates  four  in  each  pen,  and 
keep  the  room  partially  darkened  except  when 
feeding,  at  which  time  it  should  be  as  light  as 
possible.  Feed  regularly  three  times  a  day  by 
placing  the  feed  trough  before  them  for  twenty 
minutes  at  a  time  and  removing  it  at  the  close 
of  each  meal.  Keep  water  before  them  all  the 
time. 

A  ration  which  gives  good  results  consists  of 
the  following :  — 

One  part  of  fine  ground  oats. 
One  part  of  fine  ground  corn  meal. 


64       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

This  mixture  may  be  fed  dry  in  the  feeding 
trough,  or  it  may  be  mixed  with  skim  milk. 
When  once  mixed  with  skim  milk,  do  not  keep  it 
over  from  one  feeding  to  another.     Why? 

Weigh  the  birds  daily,  recording  the  variation 
in  weight.  Determine  the  time  of  maximum 
gain  and  the  time  when  the  birds  should  be 
slaughtered  for  the  best  results.  The  time 
usually  required  to  satisfactorily  fatten  is  from 
two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  and 
twenty-five  hours.  Figure  the  profit,  keeping 
in  mind  the  following  points :  — ■ 

Weight  before  feeding. 

Selhng  price  per  pound  before  feeding. 

Total  value  before  feeding. 

Gain  in  weight  before  feeding. 

Cost  of  food  consumed. 

Cost  of  producing  a  pound  of  flesh  during 
feeding. 

Weight  after  feeding. 

Selling  price  per  pound  after  feeding. 

Total  value  after  feeding. 

Profit  from  feeding. 
If  time  permits,  carry  a  number  of  different 
lots  through  the  crate,  using  different  rations 
and  determining  the  relative  merits  of  each. 

Always  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  animals 
fatten  better  at  rest,  since  the  economy  of  food 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  65 

is  promoted  by  diminishing  the  demand  for  heat 
and  energy. 

EXERCISE  XIX 

Machine  Fattening 

Select  the  birds  to  be  fattened,  and  place  them 
one  or  two  in  each  crate.  The  stall  should  be 
made  smaller  than  in  crate  fattening,  about 
sixteen  by  eighteen  inches,  and  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  sliding  door. 

Construct  the  crate  with  movable  pans  or  sliding 
boards  in  the  bottom.  Why  ?  Place  the  coops 
one  above  the  other  in  a  building  which  can  be 
darkened. 

Before  attempting  to  feed  the  birds  with  the 
machine,  study  its  construction  carefully,  noting 
the  following  parts  and  the  work  which  each 
part  performs.  Note  the  construction  and  shape 
of  the  food  chamber.  What  is  its  capacity? 
Measure  the  diameter  of  the  piston  and  the 
length  of  the  stroke.  How  much  food  does  one 
stroke  of  the  piston  force  through  the  cylinder  ? 
Find  the  spring  which  brings  the  piston  and  foot 
lever  back  into  place.  Examine  the  nozzle  and 
food  tube ;  how  is  it  constructed  so  as  not  to  in- 
jure  the  bird's  mouth  or  throat  ?  Find  the  stop 
for  regulating  the  amount  of  food,  move  it  up  and 


66  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

down;  notice  in  each  case  the  length  of  the  piston 
stroke.  Examine  the  treadle  construction  and 
lever  attachment. 

After  becoming  familiar  with  the  principle  of 
the  cramming  machine,  prepare  the  following 
feed  for  use  in  same. 

2  parts  fine  ground  oats. 
•  1  part  fine  corn  meal. 
1  part  fine  ground  buckwheat. 
Pulverized  charcoal  5  lbs.  to  each  100  lbs. 
of  mixture. 

A  few  hours  before  feeding  take  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  above  stock  ration  and  mix  it 
with  skim  milk  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  fill 
the  food  hopper,  and  at  feeding  time  wheel  the 
machine  in  front  of  the  birds  to  be  fed. 

Take  the  bird  in  the  left  hand,  holding  its  feet 
and  flight  feathers  firmly  in  the  same  hand. 
Stretch  out  the  neck  with  the  right  hand,  and 
push  the  feed  tube  down  the  bird's  throat,  being 
sure  that  the  nozzle  ends  in  the  crop.  Place  the 
fingers  of  the  right  hand  on  the  crop  and  press 
the  treadle  with  the  foot.  The  pressure  of  food 
in  the  crop  will  tell  when  the  right  amount  of 
food  has  been  given.  Feed  lightly  at  first, 
gradually  increasing  the  amount  up  to  the  second 
week,  when  the  bird  should  receive  a  full  ration 
three  times  a  day  until  killing  time,  which  is  usu- 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  67 

all}^  from  eighteen  to  twenty-one  days.  Weigh 
the  birds  each  day,  noting  the  gain  in  weight. 
If  fed  properly,  the  greatest  gain  will  occur  during 
the  second  week. 

Figure  the  profit  from  cramming,  taking  into 
consideration  the  gain  in  weight,  amount  and 
value  of  food  consumed,  also  value  before  and 
after  feeding,  and  extra  labor  required. 

EXERCISE  XX 

Caponizing 

Select  some  young  cockerels  four  months  old, 
shut  them  up,  and  withhold  all  food  for  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  before  operating. 
Secure  a  narrow  table,  box,  or  barrel  about  three 
feet  high  and  one  which  is  light,  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  moved  about.  Before  attempting  the  op- 
eration, study  the  instruments  carefully,  learning 
the  name  of  each  of  the  following  and  how  it  is 
handled. 

Hooks  and  cord. 

Caponizing  knife. 

Spreader. 

Caponizing  hook. 

Probe  and  spatula. 

Cannula  and  wire  or  patent  scoop. 

Spoon  forceps. 

Tweezers. 


68  poultry  laboratory  guide 

The  Operation 

Lay  the  bird  on  its  left  side  and  wrap  the  cord 
twice  around  the  legs,  making  a  half  slip  with  the 
hook;  attach  to  the  other  end  a  weight  about 
the  size  of  a  half  brick.  Wrap  the  second  string 
around  the  wings,  bringing  them  together  at  the 
back,  and  let  the  weights  hang  over  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  table,  thus  holding  the  fowl  secure. 
Moisten  the  feathers  with  a  two  per  cent  solution 
of  creolin.  This  tends  to  prevent  bleeding,  and 
makes  the  feathers  stay  where  placed,  and  kills 
any  germs  which  may  be  present. 

Pluck  a  few  feathers  above  the  first  and  second 
ribs,  and  pull  the  skin  with  the  left  hand  toward 
the  hip  so  that  after  the  operation  the  skin  will 
move  back,  covering  the  opening.  Grasp  the 
knife  in  the  right  hand,  and  make  the  incision 
between  the  first  and  second  rib,  cutting  away 
from  the  backbone.  In  making  the  cut  push 
the  point  of  the  knife  in  quickly  about  one  quar- 
ter of  an  inch,  and  hold  it  there,  as  the  bird  will 
move  its  ribs  up  and  down  for  a  moment ;  then 
increase  the  cut  to  about  an  inch  in  length,  taking 
care  to  cut  between  the  ribs.  Next  insert  the 
spreader  by  pressing  it  together  and  having  the 
hook  ends  catch  between  the  ribs.  Should  the 
wound  bleed  freely,  wipe  it  off  with  a  piece  of  cot- 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       69 

ton  saturated  with  the  creolin  solution.  With  the 
caponizing  hook  next  tear  the  thin  skin  or  peri- 
toneum until  the  right  testicle  is  plainly  seen,  and 
have  the  opening  large  enough  to  admit  the  can- 
nula easily.  The  hook  must  be  used  with  care, 
as  there  is  danger  of  rupturing  the  arteries  and 
intestines.  Next  with  the  probe  locate  both 
testicles,  moving  the  table  if  necessary  so  that 
the  light  shines  directly  in  the  incision.  Take 
the  cannula  in  the  left  hand  and  thread  it  properly 
with  the  wire,  having  the  loop  in  the  shape  of  an 
oval  a  little  larger  than  the  testicle.  Insert  it  in 
the  opening,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  probe  catch 
the  lower  or  left  hand  testicle  in  the  loop ;  gradu- 
ally draw  the  loop  up  with  the  right  hand,  gently 
shaking  the  cannula  and  allowing  the  wire  loop  to 
shp  up  around  the  testicle  until  only  the  spermatic 
cord  is  left.  Now,  gently  pull  the  rest  of  the 
loop  into  the  cannula,  giving  the  wire  a  sliding 
motion  which  will  sever  the  cord  and  leave  the 
testicle  free.  Remove  same  immediately  with 
the  spoon  forceps.  Next  remove  the  right  or  up- 
per testicle  in  the  same  manner  as  the  left.  The 
left  testicle  should  always  be  removed  first,  as  it 
is  the  hardest  to  remove,  and  if  the  right  one  is 
taken  first  bleeding  may  follow  which  will  en- 
tirely hide  the  lower  one  from  view.  If  for  any 
reason  it  is  impossible  to  take  the  lower  one  out, 


70  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

it  will  be  necessary  to  turn  the  bird  and  repeat 
the  operation  from  the  left  side.  Use  great  care 
to  get  all  of  the  testicles  out,  for  if  any  is  left  at- 
tached it  will  cause  a  slip ;  by  which  is  meant  a 
bird  partially  altered,  but  which  possesses  very 
few  if  any  of  the  advantages  of  capons.  If  much 
blood  is  caused  to  flow,  use  a  piece  of  cotton  and 
the  tweezers  to  absorb  same. 

Remove  the  spreader,  allow  the  skin  to  settle 
back  covering  the  opening,  and  wash  the  wound 
with  a  disinfecting  solution.  Place  the  birds  in 
clean,  shady  quarters,  with  plenty  of  fresh  water. 
Feed  them  a  soft  mash  for  the  first  week  at 
least,  and  do  not  allow  them  to  exercise  violently 
for  the  first  few  days. 

The  day  following  the  operation  look  the  birds 
over  for  wind  puffs  near  the  incision,  which  will 
be  made  to  disappear  by  piercing  them  with  a 
sharp  needle. 

If  a  bird  is  killed  during  the  operation,  it  is 
as  good  for  food  as  if  it  had  been  bled  in  the 
neck. 

When  through  caponizing  cleanse  all  instru- 
ments, wipe  them  dry,  and  place  in  the  case  for 
the  next  operation. 

Mark  each  bird  operated  upon  with  leg-bands 
to  keep  them  from  getting  mixed  with  male  birds. 

Weigh  them  each  week  and  keep  a  record  of 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  71 

their  gain  in  weight,  and  compare  with  unaltered 
cockerels  of  the  same  age. 


EXERCISE  XXI 

The  Preservation  of  Eggs 

Secure  four  jars  holding  about  two  quarts 
each ;  they  may  be  of  stoneware  or  glass.  A 
two-quart  Mason  glass  jar  with  rubber  seal  is 
excellent.  Scald  the  vessels  thoroughly  with 
boiling  water. 

Place  in  each  jar  fifteen  fresh-laid  eggs,  not 
over  one  week  old,  which  have  been  kept  in  a 
cool  place  and  washed  clean.  Number  the  jars 
with  printed  labels  one  to  four. 

Next  prepare  the  following  solutions  :  — 

No.  I.  Take  one  pint  of  water  glass  or  silicate 
of  soda,  and  add  to  it  nine  pints  of  boiling  water, 
which  makes  approximately  a  ten  per  cent  solu- 
tion. Pour  this  solution  of  water  glass  over  the 
eggs  in  jar  number  one  until  they  are  completely 
covered,  and  seal  the  jar. 

No.  II.  Take  one  pound  of  quicklime  and  one 
pound  of  table  salt,  and  thoroughly  mix  them 
with  four  quarts  of  boiling  water.  After  slaking 
and  settUng  pour  off  the  clear  solution,  and  use 
same  to  cover  the  eggs  in  jar  number  two. 


72  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

No.  III.  Make  a  solution  by  dissolving  three 
and  one  half  ounces  of  common  table  salt  in  two 
quarts  of  boiling  water,  which  makes  a  six  per 
cent  solution.  Cover  the  eggs  in  jar  number 
three  with  this  solution,  and  seal. 

No.  IV.  Dissolve  two  ounces  of  salicylic  acid 
(crystals)  in  alcohol,  and  add  this  solution  to  one 
quart  of  water.  Immerse  the  remaining  fifteen 
eggs  in  this  solution  for  one  hour,  allow  them  to 
dry,  and  pack  separately,  small  ends  down,  in  the 
remaining  jar  in  fine  dry  sand.  Be  sure  to  cover 
all  the  eggs  and  seal  the  jar. 

Mark  on  each  jar  the  date  and  character  of 
the  preservative  used;  also  keep  a  record  of  same 
in  the  notes.  Place  all  four  jars  in  a  dark,  cool 
place,  preferably  on  a  dirt  or  cement  floor  in  a 
cellar.  Leave  them  entirely  alone  for  from  six 
to  twelve  months,  at  which  time  test  them  and 
determine  the  advantages  of  the  various  preser- 
vatives. 

If  eggs  have  been  laid  down  at  some  previous 
time  for  testing,  examine  them  carefully  and 
compare  with  the  strictly  fresh  egg  as  regards 
the  following :  — 

Color  of  shell. 
Color  of  yolk. 
Color  of  albumen. 


POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE  73 

The  presence  or  absence  of  mould  on  the 
inside  of  the  egg. 

Consistency  of  yolk. 

Consistency  of  albumen. 

Flavor. 

Smell. 

Size  of  air  cell. 

Rotten  or  not. 
Determine  whether  the  eggs  are  usable  for 
culinary  purposes  or  not,  and  rate  each  preserva- 
tive in  terms  of  per  cent  according  to  the  number 
of  eggs  which  are  good  or  bad ;  100  per  cent 
meaning  all  good  and  0  per  cent  all  bad. 

EXERCISE  XXII 

New  England  Method  of  Killing 

Secure  a  plump  chicken  or  other  fowl  which 
is  ready  for  killing.  Attach  a  stout  cord,  with  a 
noose  at  the  loose  end,  to  a  beam  or  ceiling,  in 
such  a  position  that  the  bird  when  struggling  will 
not  strike  any  obstacle.  Take  both  feet  in  the 
right  hand  and  thrust  them  through  the  loop, 
tighten  it,  and  be  sure  that  they  are  held  securely 
and  that  the  head  of  the  bird  is  about  opposite 
the  waist  line  or  a  little  below.  Next  lock  the 
wings  to  prevent  flapping;   this  can  be  done  by 


74  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

bringing  one  over  the  other  and  catching  the  tip 
of  the  upper  wing  under  that  of  the  lower ;  this 
makes  it  impossible  for  the  bird  to  free  itself  and 
allows  the  picker  free  use  of  both  hands.  Grasp 
the  head  firmly  in  the  left  hand,  opening  the  beak 
by  the  use  of  the  thumb  and  the  middle  finger. 

When  you  have  a  secure  hold,  thrust  the  blade 
down  the  throat  until  the  point  is  just  behind  the 
head,  draw  it  across  with  the  point  sUpping 
along  the  neck  or  backbone ;  this  severs  the 
jugular  vein  and  insures  good  bleeding.  With- 
draw the  knife,  and  allow  the  bird  to  bleed  freely 
for  a  few  moments ;  this  may  be  hastened  by  hold- 
ing the  tongue  down  with  the  knife.  Next  place 
the  point  of  the  knife  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
with  the  cutting  edge  towards  the  left  hand  and 
force  it  through  the  membrane  into  the  brain 
cavity,  turn  it  once  around  by  a  twist  of  the 
wrist,  and  then  draw  the  blade  directly  across  the 
base  of  the  brain,  thus  severing  the  spinal  cord 
and  thereby  destroying  the  control  which  in  life 
the  bird  has  over  its  feathers.  As  soon  as  the 
brain  has  been  pierced,  turn  the  knife  into  the  skin 
of  the  lower  beak  and  make  a  hole,  through  which 
place  a  hook  suspending  a  weight  such  as  a  horse- 
shoe or  brick.  This  keeps  the  neck  extended 
and  insures  a  thorough  bleeding,  which  is  all-im- 
portant. 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  75 

After  this  operation  quickly  rub  the  hands 
down  the  neck,  removing  the  feathers  therefrom 
and  allowing  them  to  fall  into  a  barrel  or  box 
provided  for  the  purpose.  Pull  the  tail  and 
wing  feathers  by  a  quick  twist,  and  throw  them 
on  the  ground,  then  begin  to  remove  those  from 
the  tenderest  parts  of  the  body  first,  which  on 
the  chicken  are  the  breast  and  back  near  the  base 
of  the  tail  and  on  the  turkey  the  breast  and  the 
thigh. .  Never  use  the  fingernails  to  pick  with; 
the  side  of  the  forefinger  and  the  end  of  the 
thumb  are  much  quicker  and  will  not  scratch. 
When  pulling  the  short  or  pin  feathers,  the  nails 
will  have  to  be  used,  but  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  only  a  careful,  clean  pluck  is  made,  as  not 
a  scratch  or  scrape  will  pass  in  first-class  prod- 
ucts. 

By  the  time  the  body  is  picked  the  bird  will 
be  so  nearly  dead  that  flapping  will  be  almost 
impossible;  then  the  wings  may  be  unlocked  and 
picked  clean.  With  turkeys  the  wing  or  flight 
feathers  may  be  left  on,  and  with  chickens  the 
wings  maybe  cut  off  at  the  outer  joint,  not  hurt- 
ing the  sale  of  the  bird  in  the  least. 

When  through  picking,  immerse  the  bird  in 
clean,  cold  water  for  one  hour,  which  takes  out 
all  of  the  animal  heat  and  causes  the  body  to 
plump  up. 


76  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

Weigh  the  bird  before  and  after  killing  and 
picking,  and  find  the  shrinkage. 


EXERCISE  XXIII 

New  Jersey  Method  of  Killing  and  Picking 

Secure  a  large  box  about  two  feet  square  and 
two  feet  high,  fasten  a  leather  boot  leg  to  one 
side,  and  place  a  box  or  stool  beside  it  for  a  seat. 
Select  the  fowl  to  be  killed  and  hold  it  under  the 
left  arm  with  the  back  up  so  that  the  neck  is 
stretched  out  when  the  arm  is  extended.  Grasp 
the  head  in  the  left  hand,  and  open  the  beak  from 
the  under  side  with  the  forefinger ;  with  right 
hand  stick  the  bird  with  a  sharp  knife  similar  to 
the  New  England  Method. 

While  the  bird  is  bleeding  hold  her  by  the  base 
of  both  wings  and  pluck  the  large  wing  and  tail 
feathers,  then  strike  the  head  once  or  twice  with 
a  short  stick  to  stun  and  stop  bleeding.  Now 
sit  beside  the  box,  thrusting  the  bird's  head  into 
the  boot  leg,  holding  it  there  with  the  knee  and 
holding  the  wings  between  the  knees.  Hold 
the  legs  in  the  left  hand  and  pick  with  the  right; 
first  take  out  the  breast  feathers,  then  the  back 
and  legs,  finishing  with  the  small  wing  feathers. 

When  picking,  keep  the  bird  stretched  out  and 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  77 

always  pull  the  feathers  towards  the  head. 
Throw  all  soft  feathers  into  the  box,  those  with 
quills  being  discarded.  Use  a  knife  and  the 
thumb  in  drawing  the  pin  feathers. 

When  through  picking,  immerse  the  bird  in 
cold  water,  allow  to  drain,  and  it  is  ready  to  pack 
for  shipment. 

What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  two  methods  previously  outlined? 


EXERCISE  XXIV 
Shaping  and  Dressing 

In  preparing  birds  for  market  the  appearance 
of  the  dressed  carcass  governs  the  price;  for  this 
reason  any  method  which  increases  the  desirable 
qualities  should  be  favored. 

Shaping,  while  employed  in  this  country  to 
but  a  small  extent,  is  however  a  common  practice 
in  Europe,  and  the  value  of  the  birds  is  thereby 
greatly  enhanced. 

Construct  a  V-shaped  trough  thirty  inches 
long  out  of  two  ^  inch  boards,  the  back  board 
being  six  inches  high  and  the  front  one  five  inches. 
Have  the  end  pieces  extend  eight  to  ten  inches 
below  the  trough  to  act  as  legs  and  raise  it  from 
the  floor  and  table.     As  soon  as  the  birds  to  be 


78       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

shaped  are  plucked,  tie  the  hocks  loosely  together 
so  that  the  legs  lie  flat  against  each  side  of  the 
breast.  Before  tying  draw  the  meat  upwards  by 
means  of  the  hands,  thus  improving  the  appear- 
ance of  the  bird.  Next  strike  the  stern  against 
a  clean  wall  or  bench,  flattening  it  and  making  it 
fit  the  shaping  trough  easily.  Lay  each  bird  in 
the  shaping  trough  breast  down,  with  the  neck 
and  head  hanging  over  the  front.  The  first 
bird  must  be  pressed  firmly  against  the  side  of 
the  trough  and  a  weight  placed  by  its  side  to  hold 
it  in  position ;  as  succeeding  birds  are  placed  in 
the  trough,  the  weight  should  be  moved  .along 
until  the  trough  is  packed  full.  It  is  very 
essential  to  have  them  firmly  and  tightly  packed. 

Next  lay  a  board  about  five  inches  wide  over 
the  backs  of  the  fowls  just  behind  the  wings,  and 
place  upon  it  a  heavy  weight,  which  must  be 
equally  distributed  over  its  entire  length,  about 
eight  to  ten  pounds  per  bird.  Allow  the  birds  to 
remain  in  the  trough  for  several  hours  until  they 
are  cold  and  set,  after  which  they  may  be  re- 
moved, dressed,  and  packed  for  shipment. 

Shaping  adds  nothing  to  the  weight;  it  simply 
improves  the  appearance. 


poultry  laboratory  guide  79 

Dressing 

Fowls  which  are  to  be  marketed  in  the  common 
or  wholesale  manner  must  never  be  drawn  or  cut 
in  any  way.  This  work  is  left  to  the  middleman 
to  perform  in  accord  with  his  customers'  require- 
ments. When  selhng  direct  to  the  consumer  and 
in  a  high-class  retail  trade  it  is  best  to  deliver  the 
birds  ready  for  cooking. 

With  a  bird  to  be  roasted  proceed  as  follows: 
place  a  handful  of  straw  in  the  stove  and  when 
blazing  hold  the  bird  above  the  same,  burning  or 
singeing  all  hairs  from  the  body.  Use  care  not 
to  blacken  the  skin;  this  is  why  paper  is  objec- 
tionable. 

After  singeing  proceed  as  follows  :  — - 

I.  Notch  the  skin  of  each  leg  just  above  the 
joint  so  as  to  cut  the  sinews;  twist  the  shank, 
breaking  the  joint,  and  sever  the  tendons  with  a 
knife. 

II.  Remove  outer  joint  of  wing  in  the  same 
way. 

III.  Pull  the  skin  of  the  neck  towards  the  body 
and  sever  the  neck  about  one  inch  from  the  body; 
thus  when  the  skin  is  released,  about  one  inch  of 
free  neck  skin  is  left. 

IV.  Make  a  cut  two  inches  long  at  one  side 
of  the  breast,  exposing  the  crop;  remove  same. 


80  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

being  careful  not  to  increase  the  size  of  the  open- 
ing. 

V.  Turn  the  bird  with  the  tail  towards  the 
operator  and  make  a  longitudinal  cut  about  two 
inches  in  length  from  the  vent  towards  the 
point  of  the  keel.  Insert  the  forefinger  and 
carefully  loosen  the  tissue  and  fat  around  the 
intestines  and  gizzard;  when  entirely  loosened 
draw  them  out,  taking  care  not  to  rupture  any 
part.  When  all  are  out  make  a  circular  cut 
around  the  vent  and  remove  same  with  the 
intestines. 

VI.  Next  remove  all  internal  organs,  as  liver, 
gall,  spleen,  reproductive  organs,  heart,  and 
lungs,  taking  care  not  to  tear  the  flesh  around 
the  opening. 

VII.  Wash  bird  out  thoroughly  with  warm 
water  followed  by  cold. 

VIII.  Open  gizzard  and  heart  and  wash  out 
and  place  with  the  liver  in  the  body  cavity. 

IX.  Take  small  white  thread  and  needle, 
gather  loose  neck  skin  over  the  end  of  the  neck, 
and  sew  smoothly  together  and  fasten. 

X.  Take  six  or  eight  stitches  in  the  breast  in 
the  opening  from  which  the  crop  was  taken,  leav- 
ing it  perfectly  smooth. 

XI.  Lay  the  wings  flat  and  secure  on  the 
sides  of  the  body,  and  pass  white  cotton  string 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  81 

twice  around  the  entire  body  and  fasten,  thus 
holding  them  close  and  smooth. 

XII.  Tie  a  piece  of  string  around  the  hock 
joints,  having  them  two  inches  apart,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  keel,  and  bring  them  down  close  to  the 
body,  tying  the  strings  firmly  to  the  tail. 

XIII.  Immerse  the  bird  in  clear  cold  water 
for  one  hour,  when  the  muscles  will  be  firmly  set; 
after  draining  and  drying  it  is  ready  for  the 
customer. 

EXERCISE  XXV 
Packing  Eggs  for  Shipment 

A  large  part  of  the  profits  in  poultry-keeping 
depends  on  the  marketing  of  the  products.  A 
careful  grading  of  all  poultry  products  pays, 
since  each  grade  will  sell  better  if  sold  by  itself. 
The  low-grade  products  in  a  mixed  lot  will  lower 
the  selling  price  more  than  the  high-grade  prod- 
ucts in  the  same  lot  will  raise  it. 

Egg  packages  must  be  selected  with  reference 
to  the  needs  of  the  trade  for  which  they  are  to  be 
consigned.  When  shipping  direct  to  the  cus- 
tomer in  lots  of  a  few  dozen  each,  the  small  paste- 
board carton  with  a  capacity  of  one  dozen  eggs 
is  the  most  desirable.  They  cost  from  five  to 
eight  dollars  per    thousand,   according   to    the 


82  POULTRY    LABORATORY    GUIDE 

quantity.  The  above  estimate  includes  the  cost 
of  printing  on  the  cover,  which  gives  to  the  poul- 
tryman  a  constant  source  of  advertising.  When 
it  is  desired  to  make  express  shipments  to  private 
customers,  the  three-dozen  size  placed  in  a  dur- 
able and  attractive  shipping  crate  is  very  de- 
sirable. 

Construct  a  shipping  crate  for  a  three-dozen 
size  carton  as  follows.  Make  it  11|  x  12  inches 
inside  measure  and  4  inches  deep;  the  sides 
and  bottom  should  be  made  of  f  inch  material, 
light  and  durable,  as  Georgia  pine,  the  ends  of 
the  same  material  about  |  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
the  cover  of  f  inch  material,  reenforced  with  two 
I  inch  strips  to  prevent  warping  and  splitting. 
Fasten  the  cover  on  with  two  2|  inch  strap 
hinges  and  a  2  inch  hasp  and  staple;  further 
strengthen  the  case  by  fastening  a  band  of  J 
inch  galvanized  iron  strapping  around  the  edges. 
When  finished,  give  it  a  good  coat  of  paint  and 
varnish,  and  when  dry,  place  the  name  and 
address  of  the  poultryman  or  farm  shipping  the 
eggs  on  the  top  and  sides  of  the  case.  This  can 
be  most  easily  done  with  a  stencil.  The  capacity 
of  the  above  shipping  crate  can  be  increased  in 
series  of  three  dozens  each  by  simply  making  it 
deeper  according  to  the  number  of  layers  of 
cartons  desired.     Fifteen  inches  in  depth  accom- 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  83 

modates  five  layers,  or  fifteen  dozen.  The  crate 
as  described  is  4  inches  deep,  while  the  carton 
is  but  3;  the  remaining  space  is  designed  for 
packing  material  to  avoid  breakage  en  route. 

When  shipping  to  large  customers  or  com- 
mission merchants,  the  eggs  are  packed  in  stand- 
ard thirty-dozen  crates  with  pasteboard  fillers. 
These  crates  may  be  purchased  second  hand  for 
from  five  to  fifteen  cents  apiece,  and  can  be  made 
much  more  durable  by  removing  the  back  and 
replacing  it  with  f  inch  Georgia  pine  and 
providing  a  cover  of  the  same  material,  cleating 
it  to  prevent  warping  and  fastening  it  to  the 
crate  by  means  of  2  or  3  inch  strap  hinges  and 
a  3  inch  hasp  and  staple. 

Secure  all  of  the  different  styles  of  egg  cases 
possible ;  note  their  construction  and  especially 
the  means  employed  to  keep  the  eggs  from  strik- 
ing against  one  another. 

Fill  the  cases  with  fresh,  clean  eggs,  always 
placing  them  small  end  down.  If  any  are  dirty, 
wash  them  before  packing.  Sapolio  is  good  for 
removing  stains.  Avoid  washing  them  when  not 
dirty.     Why? 

Note  the  length  of  time  it  takes  to  fill  the 
various  style  cases.  What  are  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  each  style?  All  eggs 
should  be  shipped  by  express.     Why  ? 


84  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

EXERCISE  XXVI 

Packing  and  Shipping  Poultry 

LIVE  poultry 

For  shipping  poultry  to  market,  well-con- 
structed crates  are  especially  desirable.  They 
must  be  of  sufficient  size  to  cause  no  undue 
crowding  of  the  birds  and  not  too  large  for  easy 
handling.  When  long  crates  are  used,  partitions 
should  be  placed  every  two  feet  to  prevent  the 
birds  being  thrown  together  when  the  crate  is 
tipped,  thus  preventing  many  birds  from  being 
killed  by  smothering. 

When  the  birds  shipped  are  to  be  used  for 
meat,  a  large  number  may  be  shipped  together; 
but  when  they  are  birds  of  high  value  to  be  used 
for  breeders,  a  small  number  only  should  be  put 
in  one  case. 

Construct  a  crate  30  inches  wide  by  40  inches 
long,  divide  it  into  partitions  out  of  1  x  2  scant- 
ling and  laths.  Make  it  12  inches  high,  and 
provide  it  with  a  movable  door.  When  finished 
band  the  edges  with  ^  inch  galvanized  iron 
strapping  to  strengthen.  Such  a  crate  can  be 
used  for  many  shipments,  the  express  company 
returning  the  same  empty  for  ten  cents  per  crate. 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  85 

Before  shipment  feed  the  birds  hberally  with 
water,  corn,  and  wheat ;  if  they  are  to  travel  a 
long  distance,  whole  grain  and  water  should  be 
provided  in  the  crate. 

DRESSED   POULTRY 

Before  packing  be  sure  that  the  birds  are  dry 
and  cold,  with  all  of  the  animal  heat  removed. 
Wash  the  feet,  remove  any  clotted  blood  from 
the  mouth,  and  wash  the  head ;  also  sew  up  any 
bad  tears  in  the  skin,  using  fine  white  thread. 
Packages  for  the  shipping  of  dressed  poultry 
vary  greatly  in  size. 

When  shipping  single  birds  direct  to  the  con- 
sumer, each  bird  should  be  wrapped  in  waxed  paper 
and  placed  in  pasteboard  boxes  which  are  of 
sizes  suitable  to  hold  one  bird  or  a  pair,  as  the  case 
may  demand. 

When  shipping  to  commission  merchants, 
boxes  or  barrels  holding  from  one  hundred  to 
two  hundred  pounds  are  desirable ;  when  ship- 
ping without  ice,  pack  the  birds  in  clean  cases 
lined  with  fresh  wrapping  paper.  Wrap  each 
bird's  head  with  paper.     Why  ? 

For  a  high-class  trade  each  bird  should  be 
wrapped  in  a  waxed  paper.  What  are  the  ad- 
vantages of  so   doing?     Pack  the  birds  tight 


86       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

to  prevent  bruising.  Barrels  are  especially 
desirable  for  shipping  in  warm  weather  when  ice 
is  used.  In  the  bottom  bore  holes  to  provide 
drainage,  and  place  excelsior  to  the  depth  of  two 
inches.  Pack  the  birds  closely  with  alternate 
layers  of  fine  cracked  ice,  the  bottom  and  top  layers 
always  being  ice.  Straighten  out  the  bodies  and 
legs  so  that  they  will  not  arrive  bent  and  twisted 
out  of  their  normal  shape.  Upon  the  top  place 
a  good-sized  cake  of  ice,  and  cover  the  barrel  with 
white  wrapping  paper  and  burlap,  fastening  the 
latter  with  a  hoop.  Cases  may  be  packed  in  the 
same  manner,  but  whenever  ice  is  used  the  top 
should  be  covered  with  burlap,  for  by  so  doing 
the  package  will  be  kept  right  side  up. 

Mark  all  packages  with  the  name  of  the 
shipper,  kind,  quality,  and  number  of  birds,  also 
the  net  weight. 

Dressed  and  live  poultry  should  always  be 
shipped  by  express  and  marked  perishable. 
Never  use  colored  wrapping  paper  in  packing. 
Why? 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  87 

EXERCISE  XXVII 

Poultry  Book-keeping 

Either  single  or  double  entry  may  be  used, 
the  single  entry  system  being  very  simple  and 
in  many  cases  the  most  advisable.  It  consists 
of  a  day  book  in  which  is  recorded  all  money 
spent  for  supplies,  help,  repairs,  feed,  etc.,  and 
all  money  taken  in  for  sales  of  eggs,  live  poultry, 
dressed  poultry ,  feathers,  etc. ;  credits  and 
debits  are  kept. 

If  the  business  is  large  and  many  cash  and 
credit  sales  are  made,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  an 
order  book,  sales  book,  cash  book,  and  ledger, 
which  are  filled  out  every  evening. 

When  the  business  reaches  large  proportions 
and  is  divided  into  many  departments,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  keep  a  double  entry  system  of  books 
which  will  show  at  any  time  the  exact  status  of 
any  branch  of  the  business.  It  may  be  well  to 
divide  the  account  as  follows :  laying  stock, 
breeding  stock,  young  stock,  incubation,  brood- 
ing, etc. 

The  poultry  business  is  a  business  of  details, 
and  anything  which  enables  us  to  find  the  leaks 
and  stop  the  losses  will  go  just  so  much  farther 
towards  making  it  a  success. 


88        POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

In  the  above  outlined  system  of  double  entry 
the  debits  and  credits  will  be  placed  somewhat  as 
follows. 

Debit  the  laying  stock  with  the  following 
items :  — 

Stock  purchased  or  received  from  the  young 

stock  department. 
Food  purchased. 
Labor. 
Supphes. 

Credit  laying  stock  with  the  following:  — 

Eggs  sold. 

Live  stock  sold. 

Meat  and  feathers  sold. 

Debit  the  breeding  stock  with  the  following:  — 

Stock    purchased    and    received    from    the 

young  stock  department. 
Food  purchased. 
Labor. 
Supplies. 
Advertising,  etc. 

Credit  the  breeding  stock  with  the  following:  — 

Eggs  sold  to  outside  sources  and  to  incuba- 
tion department. 
Live  poultry  sold  for  breeding  stock. 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       89 

Debit  the  incubation  account  with  the  follow- 
ing:— 

Eggs  received  from  the  breeding  stock. 

Oil  consumed. 

Labor. 

Credit  the  incubation  account  with  the  fol- 
lowing:— 

All  vigorous  chicks  turned  to  the  brooding 

department. 
Day-old  chicks  sold  to  outside  sources. 

Debit    the    brooding    department    with    the 
following:  — 

Chicks  received  from  the  incubators. 

Food  purchased. 

Fuel. 

Labor. 

Credit    the   brooding    department   with    the 
following :  — 

Chicks  sold  as  broilers. 
Chicks  turned  on  the  range  in  the  young 
stock  department. 
Debit  the  young  stock  account  with  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

Birds  received  from  the   brooding  depart- 
ment. 
Food  consumed. 
Labor,  etc. 


90       POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

Credit  the  young  stock  department  as  fol- 
lows:—^ 

All  stock  sold  or  turned  to  the  laying  and 

breeding  stock  department. 
All   young   birds   sold   to   outside  sources, 

whether  alive  or  dressed. 

The  above  system,  while  requiring  consider- 
able time  to  keep  right,  is  absolutely  necessary 
on  a  large  plant  where  the  owner  must  be  able  to 
tell  at  a  few  moments '  no ti  ce  j  ust  what  each  branch 
of  his  business  is  doing.  The  books  should  be 
balanced  at  least  monthly,  and  oftener  if  desired. 

Make  an  outline  for  a  system  of  single  and 
double  entry  book-keeping  for  a  medium-sized 
poultry  plant. 


EXERCISE  XXVIII 

Convenient  Poultry  Records 

The  following  blanks  have  been  used  by  the 
author  for  many  years  and  have  proved  very 
satisfactory.  The  idea  in  keeping  records  is  to 
enable  the  owner  or  the  manager  of  the  poultry 
plant  to  tell  at  any  time  just  what  any  branch 
of  the  business  is  doing ;  they  make  a  valuable 
asset  to  a  complete  system  of  book-keeping  and 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       91 

can  be  easily  filed  away  and  referred  to  at  any 
time. 

A  complete  set  of  records,  if  accurately  and 
faithfully  kept,  will  do  away  with  the  necessity 
of  keeping  an  elaborate  set  of  books. 

The  table  on  page  92  is  an  egg  record  for  trap- 
nested  stock,  and  it  should  be  posted  in  the  pen 
w^here  the  birds  are  kept. 

The  table  on  page  93  is  a  feeding  record  and 
should  always  be  kept  where  exact  records  as 
regards  the  cost  of  feeding  and  care  are  desired. 

The  table  on  page  94  is  a  record  showing  cost 
of  egg  production,  profit,  etc. 

The  above  is  a  combination  of  records  I  and  II, 
grouping  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  at  a 
glance  the  exact  egg  yield,  food  consumed,  selling 
price,  and  profit  per  hen. 

The  tables  on  pages  95  and  96  are  a  yearly 
egg  record  showing  number  of  hens  and  eggs  laid 
daily  by  each  pen.  This  record  should  be  posted 
in  the  pen,  and  is  especially  desirable  where  only 
the  egg  yield  is  kept. 

Note.  —  See  incubation  and  brooder  records,  Exercises 
Nos.  8  and  16. 


92 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 


Q 
O 

o 


o 


o 

55    <^ 


^ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

■d 

2 

1 

CO 

o 

CO 

03 

^ 

<^^ 

<>5 

S 

^ 

§5 

§3 

55 

§ 

Oi 

00 

t- 

s 

iO 

■^ 

03 

O^ 

m 

o 

1 

05 

1 

1 

00 

1 

1 

t^ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

CO 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

lO 

1 

1 

1 

1 

TiH 

1 

1 

1 

M 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

(N 

1 

1 

1 

1 

r-< 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 


93 


FEEDING  RECORD 


Breed,. 

No.  of  fowls, 


Pen, 


From. 


to 


Day  of  Weei, 
A.  M.       .      . 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Total 

Corn     .     . 

Wheat      . 

Oats     .     . 

Vegetables 

Mixture  I 

Mixture  II 

1 

Mixture  III 

NOON     .      . 

Corn     .     . 

1 

Wheat      . 

Oats     .     . 

Vegetables 

Mixture  I 

Mixture  II 

Mixture  III 

p.  M.       .      . 

Corn     .     . 

Wheat      . 

Oats     .     . 

Vegetables 

Mixture  I 

Mixture  II 

Mixture  III 



■ 

Total  Amoumt  op 

Corn  consumed, 

Wheat  consumed, 

Oats  consumed,  

Vegetables    consumed, 

Mixture  I      consumed, 

Mixture  II    consumed, 

Mixture  III  consumed, 

Total  amount  in  pounds 

Nutritive  Ratio, Potential  Energy, 


Cost 


Total  cost_ 
T.D. 


Matter, 


94 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 


O 

O 

P 

O 

o 
o 


o  o 


6 
> 

1 

-^ 
1 

1 
g 

1 

i 

1 

! 

1 

1 

1 

j 

1 

1 

d 
1 

^3 
o 

O 

2 

Oats     ...... 

Mash 

Vegetables    .     .     . 

CO 

1 

o 
& 

rrj      CD 

o    o 

tsi 

o 

a 

6 

.2 

•1 

o 

p. 

p 

O 
;-! 

-(-3 

p 

POULTRY    LABORATORY    GUIDE 


95 


EGG  RECORD 


Pen 


Breed 


(3 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 

May. 

June 

1 

§ 

w 

73 

TO 

bO 

H 

w 

1 

i 

M 
M 
W 

Notes 

1 

2 

3 

— 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

1 

14 

. 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Total 

96  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

EGG  RECORD 


Pen 


Breed 


H 

July 

August 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Q 

1 

1 

1 

en 

a 

m 

CO 

W 

a 

bD 

1 

Notes 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 



11 

12 

13 

14: 

15 

16 

17 

18 



19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 





29 

30 

31 

Total 

POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 


97 


EXERCISE  XXIX 
Figuring  Poultry  Profits 

Once  a  year,  preferably  about  the  first  of 
January,  a  complete  inventory  of  the  plant 
should  be  taken,  fixing  the  inventory  values  on 
service  values  of  the  various  birds,  bearing  in 
mind  as  well  the  cost  and  selling  price  values. 
When  the  inventory  is  complete,  take  the  books 
which  have  been  balanced  for  the  year  and  pre- 
pare a  financial  statement  for  the  year  as 
follows : 


Inventory 


Current 
Year 

Past  Year 

$1500.00 

$1500.00 

500.00 

For  1200]  500.00 

3600.00 

birds   2400.00 

560.00 

560.00 

150.00 

10  houses  100.00 

270.00 

250.00 

200.00 

180.00 

700.00 

700.00 

500.00 

500.00 

20.00 

20.00 

60.00 

50.00 

2500.00 

1200  fowls  1500.00 

$10560.00 

$8260.00 

Farm  30  acres  at  $50.00  .  .  . 
Barn  with  root  cellar  .  .  .  . 
Henhouses  for  2000  birds .  .  . 
Incubator  cellar,  feed,  and  cook 

room 

15  colony  houses  at  $10.00  each 

Fencing 

Incubators 

Brooder  house  and  equipment 

Team  and  tools 

Plows  and  harrows 

Small  tools  and  supplies   .     .     . 

2000  fowls  at  $1.25  each  .     .     . 

Total 


98  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

Division  of  Land 

Woodland  and  buildings 5  acres 

Range  for  laying  stock  set  with  fruit 10  acres 

Range  for  young  stock  set  with  fruit 8  acres 

Clover  and  pea  and  oat  hay 5  acres 

Cabbage,  beets,  etc 2  acres 

Total 30  acres 


Expenses  of  Management 

Interest  on  $10,560.00  at  5  % $  528.00 

Depreciation,  repairs  and  insurance  on  buildings 

at  5% 247.50 

Depreciation  on  team,  tools,  and  fencing  at  10  %   .  105.00 

Taxes 50.00 

Help,  two  men  and  one  boy 1000.00 

Advertising 100.00 

Miscellaneous  supphes  and  incidentals 500.00 

Feed  for  2000  hens  and  young  stock 3250.00 

Improvement  to  buildings 246.00 

New  poultry  houses 1000.00 

Total $7027.00 


Probable  Returns 

Eggs  sold  for  market,  20,000  dozen  at  30  cts.     .     .  $6000.00 

Eggs  sold  for  hatching 600.00 

Day-old  chicks  sold 500.00 

Market  broilers 900.00 

Meat  and  breeding  stock  sold 1000.00 

Fruit,  feathers,  etc. 80000 

Total $9800.00 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE       99 

From  the  preceding  figures  make  a  balance 
for  the  year's  work  as  follows  :  — 

Total  cash  and  credit  sales $9800.00 

Increase  in  valuation 2300.00 

Total  increase $12,100.00 

Total  expense 7027.00 

Total  profit $5073.00 

Of  this  $5073,  $2300  has  gone  into  per- 
manent improvements  and  increasing  the  pro- 
ductive capacity  of  the  plant.  The  remaining 
$2773  can  be  considered  as  the  farmer's 
salary  for  the  year.  This  pays  the  farmer  26 
per  cent  interest  on  the  money  invested  above 
the  five  per  cent  charged  in  the  expense  account. 
The  above  figures  are  used  more  to  show  the 
method,  rather  than  as  regards  their  absolute 
accuracy,  although  the  results  here  pictured  are 
known  by  the  author  to  have  been  greatly  ex- 
celled in  many  much  more  modest  poultry 
plants. 

The  price  of  grain  and  the  market  value  of  eggs 
and  dressed  poultry  vary  so  often  and  to  such  a 
great  extent  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  for  any 
long  period  of  time  the  exact  cost  of  keeping  a 
hen,  the  value  of  the  eggs,  and  therefore  the 
profit  per  head. 

Using  the  above  as  an  outline,  work  out  the 


100      POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

income  and  expenditures  under  different  con- 
ditions, locations,  equipment,  and  capital  in- 
vested, and  try  to  determine  the  influence  which 
these  factors  have  on  the  net  profits  of  the  busi- 
ness. In  making  the  above  estimate  use  the 
current  prices  of  all  products  bought  and  sold. 


EXERCISE  XXX 

Advertising 

Advertising  pays  when  the  business  is  large, 
when  the  products  are  plentiful,  and  when  cus- 
tomers are  wanted.  Advertising  may  be  carried 
on  and  made  effective  in  any  of  the  following 
ways :  — 

I.  General  appearance  of  the  farm  and  build- 
ings. 

II.  Appearance  of  the  team  and  wagons  when 
on  the  road. 

III.  An  attractive  name  for  the  farm. 

IV.  Farm  bulletin  board. 

V.  Records  of  heavy  egg  production. 

VI.  The  exhibition  and  winning  of  prizes  in 
pure-bred  stock. 

VII.  Stencilling  of  all  shipping  packages. 

VIII.  Printed  letter  heads. 

IX.  Printed  envelopes. 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  101 

X.  Printed  circulars  and  cards. 

XI.  Printed  blotters. 

XII.  Advertising  in  magazines  and  news- 
papers. 

The  latter  is  the  most  expensive,  and  should  be 
employed  with  care  and  judgment.  The  printed 
circulars,  cards,  etc.,  should  follow  inquiries 
from  advertisements  appearing  in  periodicals,  and 
should  explain  the  products  for  sale  and  in  detail. 

Prepare  a  complete  line  of  advertising  material 
containing  representatives  of  the  above  for  a 
poultry  farm  which  has  for  sale  eggs  and  stock 
of  a  heavy  egg  strain,  also  for  a  poultry  farm 
having  for  sale  birds  of  high  scoring  and  exhi- 
bition qualities. 

EXERCISE  XXXI 

Writing  to  Prospective  Customers 

Prepare  a  letter  for  a  prospective  customer 
containing  facts  with  variations  to  suit  the  cir- 
cumstances. 

FOR   FANCY   EGG   TRADE 

We  aim  to  sell  the  best  grade  of  strictly  fresh 
eggs  which  can  be  purchased.  We  earnestly 
solicit  your  patronage,  and  wish  to  call  your 
attention  to  the  following  facts  :  — 


102      POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

I.  Our  birds  are  fed  only  on  pure,  wholesome 
food,  none  being  given  which  would  in  any  way 
give  the  egg  a  disagreeable  taste. 

II.  Our  eggs  are  collected  three  times  a  day, 
and  so  kept  clean  and  fresh. 

III.  All  eggs  are  stamped  with  our  name  and 
the  date  when  laid. 

IV.  All  eggs  are  graded,  and  only  those  weigh- 
ing over  two  pounds  to  the  dozen  are  sold  as  first 
grade. 

V.  Our  entire  output  of  eggs  is  crated  in 
small  pasteboard  cartons,  one  dozen  in  each 
package. 

VI.  All  eggs  are  shipped  the  same  day  as 
laid. 

VII.  Every  shipment  of  eggs  from  our  farm  is 
made  by  express.  All  orders  will  receive  prompt 
and  careful  attention. 


FOR  UTILITY  AND   FANCY   STOCK 

We  wish  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that 
we  have  an  extra  fine  line  of  heavy  producing, 
high  scoring  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  from  which 
we  are  selling  eggs  for  hatching  as  well  as  birds  for 
breeders.  The  following  facts  may  be  of  interest 
to  you :  — 

I.   Our  birds  are  all  in  excellent  health   and 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE      103 

have  always  been  entirely  free  from  any  conta- 
gious disease. 

II.  Our  males  are  exceptionally  vigorous, 
producing  a  high  percentage  of  fertile  eggs.  We 
guarantee  eighty-five  per  cent  to  be  fertile. 

III.  Our  birds  are  of  unusually  fine  shape, 
and  their  color  is  nearly  perfection. 

IV.  Our  entire  flock  last  year  averaged  one 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  eggs.  Pen  No.  four, 
om*  heaviest  producers,  averaged  two  hundred 
and  ten  eggs  last  year  as  pullets,  and  mated  to 
them  are  two  males,  one  whose  mother  laid  two 
hundred  and  thirty-six  eggs,  and  the  other  comes 
from  a  line  of  heavy  producers. 

V.  Our  birds  took  (here  mention  any  prizes 
which  may  have  been  taken  recently). 

VI.  We  guarantee  our  birds  to  satisfy. 

All  orders  will  be  shipped  promptly  and  will 
receive  our  most  careful  consideration. 

EXERCISE  XXXII 

Scoring  and  Grading  of  Eggs 

Secure  a  dozen  eggs  of  as  many  breeds  as 
possible,  and  apply  the  following  score  card.  In 
doing  so  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  color 
of  an  egg  governs  to  a  certain  extent  the  price 
on  the  market,  and  that  market  requirements  in 


104      POULTRY  LABORATOEY  GUIDE 

regard  to  color  differ  greatly  in  various  locali- 
ties; for  instance,  the  New  York  market  de- 
mands an  egg  with  a  clear  white  shell,  and  the 
Boston  market  pays  a  premium  for  a  dark  brown 
shell. 

The  size  of  the  air  cell  must  be  determined  by 
candling  and  is  the  safest  test  of  freshness.  In  a 
strictly  fresh  egg  it  is  about  half  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, and  constantly  grows  larger  as  evaporation 
takes  place. 

In  scoring  for  weight  of  total  sample  deduct 
two  points  for  every  one  quarter  pound  under 
perfect  weight.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the 
entire  sample  should  be  uniform  with  reference 
to  weight,  color,  and  shape ;  any  defects  in  this 
uniformity  clause  should  be  severely  cut. 

Grade  a  large  number  of  eggs  into  the  follow- 
ing classes,  which  form  the  requirements  of  the 
Boston  market :  — 

Extra.  Large,  brown,  and  fresh  in  every  way. 
Weight  two  pounds  or  more  per  dozen. 

Firsts.  Good  eggs  as  regards  color  (brown). 
Fair  size.  Weight  one  and  three  quarters 
pounds  per  dozen. 

Ordinary.  Mixed,  weight  one  and  one  half 
pounds  per  dozen. 

The  New  York  market  has  for  many  years 
regarded  the  eggs  of  the  White  Leghorn  as  the 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 


105 


Score  Card  for  Eggs 

Scale  of  Points  Cuts 

Freshness      30.  Size  of  air  cell 20 

Striking  shell  lustre 10 

Weight      .  20.  Of  total  sample 10 

(perfection  being  2  lbs.  or  more 
per  dozen). 
Uniformity .  10 

Color     .     .  20.  Of  total  sample 10 

(pure  white  or  brown  is  perfec- 
tion). 
Uniformity 10 

Shape   .     .  10.  Egg  shape 5 

(the  ratio  between  the  large  and 
the  small  diameter  is  about  one 
to  one  and  one  fifth ;  this  varies 
slightly  in  different  breeds). 
Uniformity 5 

Appearance  10.  Clean 5 

(free  from  dirt  and  blood  stains) . 
Not  cracked  or  broken 5 

Condition  of       Smooth 2 

shell   .     .    5.  Hard 3 

Package     .     5.  Neat 3 

Light 1 

Durable 1 

Total  100.                                                              ToO 
Kind  of  eggs Date Scorer 


106 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 


POULTRY  DEPARTMENT 

Baron  de  Hirsch  Agricultural  School,  Woodbine,  N.J. 
STUDENTS'   OFFICIAL   SCORE   CARD 
Class  No.  I  —  American  Breeds 


Date 

Entry  No 

Coop  No                         "Rand  No. 

Owner 

■Rreed                                      Sex 

Estimated  Weight 

Corrected  Weight 

Student's  Name 

Section 

SCALE   OF  POINTS 


Perfection 

Shape 

Color 

Total 

8 

6 

4 

3 

3 

6 

8 

2 

4 

6 

3 

6 

9 

4 

6 

10 

6 

6 

12 

4 

5 

9 

5 

5 

10 

3 

3 

6 

3 

3 

6 

Symmetry 

Weight  or  Size  .... 

Condition 

T^      -  /  Beak 

Head  JEyes 

Comb 

Wattles  and  Ear-Lobes 

Neck 

Wings 

Back 

Tail 

Breast 

Body  and  Fluff    .  .  . 
Legs  and  Toes   .... 


Student's 
Estimate 


Shape 


Color 


Corrected 


Shape 


Color 


Total. 


.100 
Score 


Total  Cuts 


Instructor 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  107 

standard  of  excellence.     These  eggs  are  of  good 
size,  of  fine  shape,  and  are  chalky  white  in  color. 

EXERCISE  XXXIII 

Scoring  Poultry  Plants 

Score  the  college  plant  according  to  the  score 
card  on  page  109. 

EXERCISE  XXXIV 

Judging  Poultry  for  Fancy  Points 

There  are  two  methods  used  in  determining 
the  respective  merits  of  different  birds  as  regards 
their  fancy  qualities. 

The  first  method  is  the  score  card  system,  which 
is  the  comparing  of  the  specimen  to  be  judged 
with  a  standard  of  excellence  and  cutting  the 
perfect  score  in  the  part  which  falls  below  stand- 
ard requirement. 

On  page  106  is  the  official  scale  of  points  of 
the  American  Poultry  Association  for  the  Ameri- 
can classes,  arranged  in  a  suitable  manner  for 
student  scoring. 

The  Standard  of  Perfection  published  by  the 
American  Poultry  Association,  which  gives  the 
standard  requirements  for  all  classes  of  birds  in 


108  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 


STUDENTS'   SCORE  CARD    FOR   UTILITY   SCORING 

General  Appearance.             25  Cuts 

Form 10 

Compact  and  symmetrical,  with  no  un- 
due development  in  any  portion,  as 
heavy  breast  or  fat  behind  the  legs. 

Quality 7 

Comb  fine  in  texture,  skin  and  flesh  soft 
but  not  fat,  skin  of  medium  thickness 
and  mellow. 

Temperament 8 

Nervous,  active,  vigorous,  not  lazy. 

Head  and  Neck.  15 

Size  of  head  medium,  broad 3 

Eyes  bright  and  full 3 

Comb  and  wa.ttles  medium  size  and  bright  red      5 
(Single   Comb    White   Leghorns'    comb 
should  be  large  and  drooping  to  one 
side.) 

Neck  of  medium  length,  full 4 

(Birds  with  long,  rangy  necks  rarely 
prove  good  layers.) 

Body.  50 

Breast  moderately  full,  but  very  wide ...      4 
Back  wide  and  fairly  long,  with  great  depth 

from  back  to  keel 5 

Hind  quarters  greatly  developed,  with  the 

heaviest  part  of  the  body  carried  back  of 

the  hock  joint 15 

Fluff  abundant,  fine,  and  carried  close  to  the 

body 3 

Lay  bones  soft,  pliable,  and  widespread  .     .     16 

Tail  set  high  and  well  spread 2 

Feathers  soft  and  held  close  to  the  body  .     .      2 
Wings  held  well  up  and  close  to  the  body     .      3 

Legs.  10 

Well  spread  and  set  wide  apart  at  the  hock 

joint 5 

Length  medium  to  short 2 

Color  of  shank  yellow  or  white 1 

Shank  free  from  feathers 2 

Total -100 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  109 


Poultry  Score  Card 

Scale  of  Points                       Cuts 
Location    ....   20  Nearness  to  market          .  3 
Means  of  transportation  ,  4 
Means  of  rapid  communi- 
cation        3 

Soil  conditions     ....  3 

Climatic  conditions      .     .  4 

Shade 3 

General  appearance         Efficiency 8 

of  entire  plant     .   20  Driveway,  walks,  and 

grounds   3 

Buildings 3 

Painting 3 

Fences 3 

Situation  and   con-         Labor  required    ....  4 

struction  of  poul-         Light .3 

try    houses     and         Ventilation 2 

fences     ....   20  Internal  equipment      .     .  2 

Floor  construction  ...  2 

Sanitary  condition  ...  3 

State  of  repairs    ....  2 

Durability 2 

Incubation     equip-         Location  of  cellar    ...  3 

ment 20  Ventilation 4 

Moisture 4 

Internal  arrangement  .     .  3 

Efficiency  and  sufficiency  6 

Brooding    equip-  Location 2 

ment 20  Light .3 

Ventilation 2 

Sanitary  conditions  .  .  5 
Labor  saving  devices  .  .  2 
System  of  heating    ...    2 

Efficiency _^ 4 

Total      100  100 

Name  of  plant 

Post  Office County State 

Date Judge 


110  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

regard  to  shape,  weight,  and  color,  must  be  used 
with  the  score  card. 

The  second  method  of  determining  the  relative 
merits  of  two  or  more  specimens  is  by  comparison 
judging.  This  is  the  system  of  placing  birds 
which  is  employed  at  most  of  our  large  poul- 
try shows  and  consists  simply  in  determining  the 
birds  which  come  nearest  to  the  ideal  in  every 
respect  and  placing  them  in  the  order  of  their 
excellence,  giving  the  best  bird  first  place,  next 
bird  second  place,  etc. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Standard  of 
Perfection  must  be  acquired  before  one  can  be- 
come expert  in  comparison  judging.  This  knowl- 
edge can  best  be  attained  by  a  large  amount  of 
practice  in  the  scoring  and  placing  of  specimens, 
and  if  one  desires  to  become  an  expert  judge,  it  is 
necessary  to  memorize  a  large  part  of  the  Stand- 
ard. 

Secure  a  number  of  specimens  and  apply  the 
above  score  card,  together  with  the  Standard 
of  Perfection. 

EXERCISE  XXXV 

Judging  Poultry  for  Utility  Points 

The  scale  of  points  on  page  108  has  been  found 
very  useful  in   calling   attention   to   the  main 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE      111 

characteristics  which  usually  go  with  heavy  egg 
production,  regardless  of  breed.  It  is,  as  well,  a 
means  of  finding  the  utility  value  of  one  bird 
over  another. 

Secure  a  number  of  specimens  which  are 
known  to  be  good  egg-layers  and  a  few  which  are 
not,  and  apply  the  scale  of  points  on  page  108. 

In  most  cases  good  layers  may  be  selected  by 
observing  the  points  outlined  above.  The  trap 
nest,  however,  is  the  only  sure  way  unless  each  hen 
tested  can  be  kept  with  a  flock  of  another  breed 
laying  eggs  of  different  color. 

EXERCISE  XXXVI 

Systems  of  Heating  Brooder  Houses  and 
Art  of  Firing 

Make  a  study  of  the  heating  which  is  installed 
at  the  college  brooder  plant.  Note  the  kind  of 
system ;  whether  it  is  hot  water,  hot  air,  or  steam. 
Hot  water  is  most  generally  used. 

Note  the  location  of  the  heater.  Is  it  below 
the  level  of  the  pipe  runs  ?  If  so,  why  ?  Note 
its  shape,  size  of  fire  box,  also  the  water  jacket  or 
tubes.  Determine  whether  it  is  put  together  in 
sections  by  means  of  collars,  or  nipples,  or  is  the 
body  made  in  one  piece.  With  small  circular 
heaters  the  latter  is  usually  the  case.     Note  the 


112  POULTRY    LABORATORY   GUIDE 

size  of  the  chimney,  its  location^  and  the  dam- 
pers which  control  the  draft.  Is  there  any 
method  of  cleaning  the  heat  flues?  Examine 
the  grate  construction,  also  the  method  of  shak- 
ing.    Is  it  clinker  proof  ? 

Find  the  point  at  which  the  cold  water  is  taken 
into  the  system,  also  the  point  at  which  the  hot 
water  leaves  the  boiler,  as  well  as  the  point  where 
it  enters  on  returning.  Also  notice  the  presence 
of  a  thermometer  if  it  is  a  hot  water  system,  to 
determine  the  temperature  of  the  water.  If 
steam,  note  the  presence  of  a  pressure  gauge. 

Follow  the  course  of  the  heated  water  through 
the  various  coils,  noting  the  presence  of  valves 
controlling  same,  also  the  presence  at  the  highest 
point  in  each  coil  of  a  small  pet  cock  to  allow  the 
escape  of  steam  and  compressed  air  which  often 
forms  at  these  points. 

Note  the  presence  of  an  expansion  pipe  and 
tank  which  keeps  a  constant  supply  of  water  in 
the  pipes  all  the  time,  emptying  or  filling  up  as 
the  water  cools  or  becomes  hotter.  Do  the  hot 
water  or  flow  pipes  run  level  on  leaving  the 
boiler,  or  do  they  slope?  If  so,  which  way  and 
why  ?  Measure  the  size  of  pipes  and  determine 
the  radiating  surface  required. 

In  firing  a  hot  water  heater,  observe  the 
following  facts. 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE      113 

Before  starting  a  fire  make  sure  that  the  sys- 
tem is  filled  with  water  so  that  it  shows  on  the 
bottom  part  of  the  glass  in  the  expansion  tank ; 
if  not  full,  allow  water  to  fiow  into  same  until  it 
is  full,  being  sure  to  open  valves  and  pet  cocks 
in  the  highest  part  of  each  coil  to  let  out  air 
which  will  gather  there. 

Start  a  good  wood  fire,  and  get  it  well  under 
way  before  putting  on  any  coal.  To  cause  the 
heater  to  burn  freely  open  the  pipe  damper, 
shut  the  door  to  the  fire  box,  and  open  the  lower 
ash  pit  door.  When  a  good  bed  of  coals  is  ob- 
tained and  the  water  is  at  the  desired  tempera- 
ture, it  may  be  checked  from  rising  higher  by 
partly  closing  the  pipe  damper,  shutting  or  partly 
shutting  the  bottom  door,  and  leaving  the  upper 
door  ajar.  The  exact  position  to  leave  each 
door  and  damper  will  have  to  be  determined  by 
practice,  and  will  vary  as  regards  height  and  size 
of  chimney ;  also  it  will  vary  greatly  every  day 
as  regards  temperature,  wind  velocity,  etc. 
When  it  is  desired  to  cause  more  heat  to  be  radi- 
ated into  the  house,  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the 
water  in  the  boiler  to  a  higher  temperature,  and 
this  can  be  accomphshed  by  opening  the  pipe 
damper,  also  the  lower  door,  and  closing  the  door 
to  the  fire  box.  If  it  is  desired  to  cool  the  water, 
the  reverse  is  the  rule. 


114  POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE 

Should  the  water  ever  go  over  212  degrees, 
steam  will  be  formed  and  it  will  be  necessary  to 
at  once  lower  the  temperature  of  the  water,  and 
this  can  most  quickly  be  accomplished  by  stop- 
ping all  draft  and  banking  the  fire.  Whenever 
steam  forms,  it  is  necessary  to  immediately  open 
the  pet  cocks  in  each  coil  to  allow  the  same  to 
escape. 

Hard  coal  makes  the  best  fuel;  soft  coal  will, 
however,  give  satisfactory  results,  but  it  will  re- 
quire much  more  attention.  With  hard  coal  the 
fire  should  rarely  be  poked  from  above,  all  pok- 
ing being  done  from  below;  with  soft  coal  the 
reverse  is  the  rule. 

Take  care  to  keep  all  ashes  removed  from  the 
ash  pit,  since  if  allowed  to  accumulate  in  great 
numbers  they  will  burn  the  grate  out  as  well  as 
spoil  the  draft. 

Be  sure  at  all  times  that  there  is  an  abundance 
of  water  in  the  system.  If  for  any  reason  it 
should  get  very  low,  do  not  admit  more  immedi- 
ately, but  bank  or  draw  out  the  fire  and  allow  the 
boiler  to  cool  off  before  letting  in  cold  water; 
if  this  precaution  is  not  followed,  a  cracked  heater 
will  be  the  result. 


POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE      115 

EXERCISE  XXXVII 

Repairing  Damaged  Heating  Systems 

Repair  any  broken  places  in  the  asbestos  cov- 
ering to  pipes  on  heater  by  mixing  the  pulp  asbestos 
with  warm  water  until  it  is  a  little  thicker  than 
cream,  and  apply  with  a  smooth  trowel,  rubbing 
in  thoroughly  and  leaving  the  surface  smooth. 

Look  over  all  pipes  and  joints  carefully,  and 
see  that  there  are  no  leaks ;  if  so,  repair  same  as 
follows :  — 

First  examine  the  coils  and  determine  the  way 
in  which  they  are  joined  to  the  headers  at  each 
end.  This  is  usually  accomplished  by  means  of  a 
union  or  a  right  and  left  nipple.  Loosen  these 
on  the  pipe  or  pipes  to  be  repaired  and  disconnect 
the  leaking  joints;  if  the  threads  are  injured,  run 
the  die  over  them  to  cut  deeper;  if  not  injured, 
replace  the  pipes,  placing  white  lead  on  the 
threads  before  screwing  up. 

In  studying  the  piping  learn  to  distinguish  the 
following  fittings:  elbows,  tees,  reducers,  coup- 
lings, nipples,  unions,  etc. 

Measure  the  diameter  of  the  various  pipes,  both 
inside  and  outside;  which  of  these  dimensions  is 
the  standard  size  of  the  pipe  ? 

Repair  any  worn  or  leaking  valves  by  grinding 
and  repacking. 


116      POULTRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

Replace  all  broken  hangers  with  new  ones,  and 
see  that  all  others  are  firmly  fastened  to  the 
brackets. 

Try  all  pet  cocks  to  see  if  they  will  open  easily 
and  are  not  choked  with  sediment.  See  that  all 
unions  are  properly  packed  and  screwed  tight. 

Lastly  give  all  exposed  pipes  a  good  coat  of 
mica  paint,  which  entirely  prevents  rusting  and 
greatly  improves  the  appearance. 

EXERCISE  XXXVIII 
Miscellaneous  Appliances 

An  electric  fan  in  the  incubator  cellar  to  keep 
the  air  cool  and  fresh.  It  must  be  regulated  to 
a  slow  speed  and  not  turned  toward  the  machine 
but  upward  toward  the  ceiling. 

A  large  dial  spring  balance  for  the  weighing 
of  feed,  eggs,  etc. 

A  thermostatic  arrangement  connected  with 
the  heater  drafts  to  regulate  the  brooder  house 
temperature. 

An  automatic  float  attached  to  the  cold  water 
inlet  in  the  expansion  tank,  which  gives  assurance 
of  an  abundance  of  water  in  the  system  at  all 
times. 

Maximum  and  minimum  thermometers  in 
incubator  cellar  and  brooder  houses. 


POULTRY   LABORATORY   GUIDE  117 

Transom  arrangement  for  opening  and  closing 
all  chick  doors  in  the  brooder  house  at  once. 

Ropes  and  pulleys  for  the  raising  and  lowering 
of  covers  for  inspection,  cleaning,  and  airing. 

Light,  quick  action  springs  upon  doors  to  the 
brooder  pens,  shutting  them  immediately  upon 
entry  and  keeping  them  closed. 

Muslin  frames  in  brooder  and  incubator  cellar 
windows,  which  are  hinged  and  may  be  raised 
inside  by  cord  and  pulley  when  it  is  desired  to 
shut  the  sash. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Exercise  I.  Disinfection  and  Commercial  Disinfectants. 
Wisconsin  Station,  Bulletin  No.  166. 

Exercise  II.  Poultry  Experiments.  Maine  Experiment 
Station,  Bulletin  No.  144.  A  Colony  House.  Oregon 
Experiment  Station,  Circular  No.  4. 

Exercise  VII.  Incubation  and  Incubators.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  236. 

Exercise  VIII.  Poultry  Experiments.  Utah  Experiment 
Station,  Bulletin  No.  102.  Loss  of  Weight  in  Eggs 
during  Incubation.  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  No.  73.  Hatching  Chicks.  Ontario  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  163  Poultry  Rec- 
ords. North  Carolina  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 
No.  152. 

Exercise  IX.  Incubation  Experiments.  Oregon  Experi- 
ment Station,  Bulletin  No.  100.  Carbon  Dioxide  under 
sitting  hens.  Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  Re- 
port 1907. 

Exercise  XIV.  A  Successful  Brooder  House.  Connecticut 
Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  33. 

Exercise  XV.  A  Gasoline-Heated  Colony  Brooder  House. 
Cornell  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  246. 

Exercise  XVI.  Raising  Chicks  Artificially.  West  Virginia 
Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  98.  Poultry  Ob- 
servations. Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  Bulle- 
tin No.  44.  Raising  Chicks.  Cornell  Reading 
Course  for  Farmers,  Bulletin  No.  19. 
118 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  119 

Exercise  XVIII.  Experiments  in  Chicken  Fattening. 
Canadian  Experimental  Farms  Report.     1903. 

Exercise  XX.  Capons  and  Caponizing.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  Circular  No.  77. 

Exercise  XXI.  Infection  and  Preservation  of  Eggs.  Con- 
necticut Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  55.  Egg 
Preservation.  North  Carohna  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  No.  191.  Saturated  Lime  Water  for  the 
Preservation  of  Eggs.  Canadian  Experimental  Farms 
Report.  1903.  Preservation  of  Eggs.  Rhode  Island 
Experiment  Station  Report,  1901,  p.  304.  Egg 
Production  of  Virgin  Fowls.  New  Jersey  Experiment 
Station  Report,  1906. 

Exercise  XXV.  Marketing  Poultry  Products.  Cornell 
Reading  Course  for  Farmers,  No.  20. 

Exercise  XXVI.  Marketing  of  Poultry  Products.  Con- 
necticut Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  38. 

Exercise  XXVIII.  Appliances  and  Methods  for  Pedigree 
Poultry  Breeding.  Maine  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 
No.  159.  Poultry  Experiments.  Cornell  Experiment 
Station,  Bulletin  No.  211.  Trap  Nests.  Rhode 
Island  Experiment   Station  Report,     1901,    p.    334. 

Exercise  XXXVIII.  New  Poultry  Appliances.  Cornell 
Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  248. 

Miscellaneous.  Fowls,  Care  and  Management.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  141.  Poultry  and  Egg  Industry  of 
Leading  European  Countries.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  Bulletin  No.  165.  Distribution  and  Mag- 
nitude of  the  Poultry  and  Egg  Industry  in  the  United 
States.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  Nineteenth 
Annual  Report.  The  Hen's  Place  on  the  Farm.  Kan- 
sas Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  150.  Farm 
Poultry.     Kansas  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No. 


120  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

99.  Poultry  Suggestions  for  the  Amateur,  Connecti- 
cut Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  36.  Poultry 
Experiments.  Utah  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 
No.  92.  The  Poultry  Industry.  Maine  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  No.  93.  Poultry  Experi- 
ments. Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  Report, 
1902.  Poultry  Keeping  for  Egg  Production.  Massa- 
chusetts Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  122. 
Poultry  Experiments.  North  Dakota  Experiment 
Station,  Bulletin  No.  78.  Poultry  Management. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  287.  Poultry.  Ontario  Agri- 
cultural Report,  1906.  Farm  Poultry.  North 
CaroHna  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  195. 
Poultry  Experunents.  North  Carolina  Experiment 
Station,  Bulletin  No.  79. 


